Canadians

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For other uses, see Canadian (disambiguation).

Canadians
Canadiens (French)

1st row: Shanawdithit, Aatsista-Mahkan, Louis Riel, Sir John A. Macdonald, Lester B. Pearson 2nd row: Celine Dion, Thomas D'Arcy McGee, John Diefenbaker, Linda Evangelista, Patrick Chan 3rd row: Russell Peters, Cassie Steele, Michaëlle Jean, David Suzuki, Tommy Douglas
Total population
Canada 34,300,000 (Est.[Note 1])
Regions with significant populations
United States 1,003,850 [1] Hong Kong 200,000 [1] United Kingdom 72,518 [1] Taiwan 52,500 [1] Lebanon 45,000 [1] People's Republic of China 40,000 [1] Australia 27,289 [1] Italy 23,487 [1] France 18,913 [1] Greece 12,477 [1] Egypt 10,000 [1] South Korea 8,763 [1] Belgium 4,145 [1] New Zealand 7,770 [1] Switzerland 7,519 [1] Philippines 7,500 [1] Portugal 7,326 [1] Japan 7,067 [1] Netherlands 8,427 [1] Mexico 5,768 [1] Norway 2,290 [1] Ireland 4,081 [1] Spain 3,810 [1] Denmark 2,752 [1] Sweden 2,742 [2]
Languages
Official languages are English (Canadian English) and French (Canadian French). Numerous indigenous American languages are also recognized.
Religion
Multiple denominations

Canadians (singular Canadian) are the people who are identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be genetic, residential, legal, historical, cultural or ethnic. For most Canadians, several (frequently all) of those types of connections exist and are the source(s) of them being considered Canadians.

Aside from the Aboriginal peoples, who according to the 2006 Canadian Census numbered 1,172,790, 3.8% of the country's total population,^[3] the majority of the populace is made up of old world immigrants and their descendents. After the initial period of French and then British colonization, different waves (or peaks) of immigration and settlement of non-aboriginal peoples took place over the course of nearly two centuries and is currently ongoing. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada and thus a Canadian identity. Canada has also been strongly influenced by that of its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States.

The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 took effect on 1 January 1947. Prior to that date, Canadians were British subjects and Canada's nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom. As Canadian independence was obtained incrementally over the course of many years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867, World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire amongst Canadians to have their country recognized as a fully-fledged sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians' commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development.

Contents [hide] 1 Origins 1.1 Immigration 1.2 Citizenship 1.3 Ethnic ancestry 2 Culture 2.1 Religion 2.2 Languages 3 See also 4 Notes 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

Origins

See also: History of Canada

Canadians make up 0.5% of the world's total population,^2010[4] having relied upon immigration for population growth and social development.^[5] Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first or second generation immigrants,^[6] meaning one out of every five Canadians currently living in Canada was not born in the country.^[7] Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent.^[8]

Immigration

Main article: immigration to Canada

The French originally settled New France in present-day Quebec, during the early part of the 17th century.^[9] They also settled the Acadian peninsula alongside a smaller number of other European merchants, who collectively became the Acadians.^[10] During the 18th and 19th century; immigration westward (to the area known as Rupert's Land) was carried out by French settlers (Coureur des bois) working for the North West Company, and by British (English and Scottish) settlers representing the Hudson's Bay Company.^[11] This led to the creation of the Métis, an ethnic group of mixed European and First Nations parentage.^[12]

The British conquest of New France was proceeded by small number of Germans and Swedes who settled alongside the Scottish in Port Royal, Nova Scotia, while some Irish immigrated to the Colony of Newfoundland.^[13] In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly-formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, approximately 60,000 United Empire Loyalist fled to British North America, a large portion of whom migrated to New Brunswick.^[14] After the War of 1812, British (included British army regulars), Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Rupert's Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada.^[15]

Between 1815 and 1850 some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles as part of the great migration of Canada.^[16] These included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia.^[17] The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, with over 35,000 distressed individuals landing in Toronto in 1847 and 1848.^[18][19] Beginning in late 1850s, Chinese immigrants into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.^[20] The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway.^[21]

The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, since the establishment of the Canadian Confederation in 1867.^[22] From the mid to late 19th century Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted "Home Children" from Britain.^[23] Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Some were planned and other were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves.^[24] Canada was now receiving a large amount of European immigrants predominately Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch and Ukrainians.^[25]

100,000 +

50,000 - 99,999

20,000 - 49,999

10,000 - 19,999

Legislative restrictions on immigration (such as the Continuous journey regulation and Chinese Immigration Act) that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.^[26] While the 1950s had still seen high levels of immigration by Europeans, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly were Chinese, Indian, Vietnamese, Jamaican and Haitian.^[27] During the late 1960s and early 1970s, Canada received many American Vietnam War draft dissenters.^[28] Throughout the late 1980s and 1990s Canada's growing Pacific trade brought with it a large influx of South Asians, that tended to settle in British Columbia.^[29]

In 2009, Canada received 252,179 immigrants - the top ten source countries were China (29,049), the Philippines (27,277), India (26,122), the United States (9,723), the United Kingdom (9,566), France (7,300), Pakistan (6,214), Iran (6,065), South Korea (5,864), and Morocco (5,222).^[30] These countries were followed closely by Algeria (4,785), United Arab Emirates (4,640), and Iraq (4,567) with Sri Lanka, Colombia, and Germany each contributing over 4,000 immigrants.^[30] Immigrants of all backgrounds tend to settle in the major urban centres.^[31][32]

The majority of illegal immigrants come from the southern provinces of the People's Republic of China, with Asia as a whole, Eastern Europe, Caribbean, Africa and the Middle East all contributing to the illegal population.^[33] Estimates of illegal immigrants range between 35,000 and 120,000.^[34] A 2008 report by the Auditor General of Canada Sheila Fraser, stated that Canada has lost track of approximately 41,000 illegal immigrants whose visas have expired.^[35]

Citizenship

Main article: Canadian nationality law

Members of the first official Canadian Citizenship ceremony held at the Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa,
3 January 1947

Canadian citizenship is typically obtained by birth in Canada, birth abroad when at least one parent is a Canadian citizen and was born in Canada, or by adoption abroad by at least one Canadian citizen.^[36] It can also be granted to a permanent resident who lives in Canada for three out of four years and meets specific requirements.^[36] Canada established its own nationality law in 1946 with the enactment of the Canadian Citizenship Act, which took effect on 1 January 1947.^[37] The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, was passed by the Parliament of Canada in 2001 as Bill C-11, which replaced the Immigration Act of 1976 as the primary federal legislation regulating immigration.^[38] Prior to the conferring of legal status on Canadian citizenship, Canada's naturalization laws consisted of a multitude of Acts beginning with the Immigration Act of 1910.^[39]

According to Citizenship and Immigration Canada there are three main classifications for immigrants: Family class (closely related persons of Canadian residents), Economic class (admitted on the basis of a point system that account for age, health and labour-market skills required for cost effectively inducting the immigrants into Canada's labour market) and Refugee class (those seeking protection by applying to remain in the country by way of the Canadian immigration and refugee law).^[40] In 2008, there were 65,567 immigrants in the family class, 21,860 refugees, and 149,072 economic immigrants amongst the 247,243 total immigrants to the country.^[6] Canada resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees^[41] and has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,^[42] driven by economic policy and family reunification, and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 "new permanent residents" in 2011.^[43]

The majority of Canadian citizens live in Canada; however, there are approximately 2,800,000 Canadians abroad as of November 1, 2009.^[44] This represents about 7.5% of the total Canadian population. Of those abroad the United States, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, Taiwan, China, and Lebanon have the largest Canadian diaspora. Canadians in United States are the greatest single expatriate community at over 1 million in 2009, representing 35.8% of all Canadians abroad.^[45] Under current Canadian law, Canada does not restrict dual citizenship but Passport Canada encourages its citizens to travel abroad on their Canadian passport, so they can access Canadian consular services .^[46]

Ethnic ancestry

Main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada

Canada has thirty four ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, of which eleven have over 1,000,000 people and numerous others are represented in smaller amounts.^{[Note 2]} According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (32%),^{[Note 3]} followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), North American Indian (4.0%),^{[Note 4]} Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (Netherlands) (3.3%).^[47] In the 2006 census, over five million Canadians identified themselves as a member of a visible minority. Together, they make up 16.2% of the total population: most numerous among these are South Asian (4.0%), Black (2.5%), and Filipino (1.1%).^[47] Aboriginal peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act,^[48] and is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses.

Map of the dominant self-identified ethnic origins of ancestors per census division of 2006.^{[Note 2]}

Canadian[Note 3] English French Scottish German

Italian North American Indian[Note 4] Ukrainian East Indian Inuit

Ethnic origin[Note 2]	%	Population	Area of largest proportion
Canadian[Note 3]	32.22%	&000000001006629000000010,066,290	Quebec (66.2%)
English Canadian	21.03%	&00000000065700150000006,570,015	Newfoundland and Labrador (43.2%)
French Canadian (excluding Acadians)	15.82%	&00000000049412100000004,941,210	Quebec (28.9%)
Scottish Canadian	15.11%	&00000000047198500000004,719,850	Prince Edward Island (40.5%)
Irish Canadian	13.94%	&00000000043541550000004,354,155	Prince Edward Island (29.2%)
German Canadian	10.18%	&00000000031794250000003,179,425	Saskatchewan (30.0%)
Italian Canadian	4.63%	&00000000014453350000001,445,335	Ontario (7.2%)
Chinese Canadian	4.31%	&00000000013465100000001,346,510	British Columbia (10.6%)
North American Indian[Note 4]	4.01%	&00000000012536150000001,253,615	Northwest Territories (36.5%)
Ukrainian Canadian	3.87%	&00000000012090850000001,209,085	Manitoba (14.8%)
Dutch Canadian (Netherlands)	3.32%	&00000000010359650000001,035,965	Alberta (5.3%)
Polish Canadian	3.15%	&0000000000984565000000984,565	Manitoba (7.3%)
East Indian Canadian	3.08%	&0000000000962665000000962,665	British Columbia (5.7%)
Russian Canadian	1.60%	&0000000000500600000000500,600	Manitoba (4.3%)
Welsh Canadian	1.41%	&0000000000440965000000440,965	Yukon (3.1%)
Filipino Canadian	1.40%	&0000000000436190000000436,190	Manitoba (3.5%)
Norwegian Canadian	1.38%	&0000000000432515000000432,515	Saskatchewan (7.2%)
Portuguese Canadian	1.32%	&0000000000410850000000410,850	Ontario (2.4%)
Métis	1.31%	&0000000000409065000000409,065	Northwest Territories (6.9%)
British Canadian (British Isles not included elsewhere)	1.29%	&0000000000403915000000403,915	Yukon (2.3%)
Swedish Canadian	1.07%	&0000000000334765000000334,765	Saskatchewan (3.5%)
Spanish Canadian	1.04%	&0000000000325730000000325,730	British Columbia (1.3%)
American Canadian	1.01%	&0000000000316350000000316,350	Yukon (2.0%)
Hungarian Canadian (Magyar)	1.01%	&0000000000315510000000315,510	Saskatchewan (2.9%)
Jewish Canadian (From all continents)	1.01%	&0000000000315120000000315,120	Ontario (1.5%)

For a complete list see: Canadian ethnic groups

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

A 1911 political cartoon on Canada's bicultural identity showing a flag combining symbols of Britain, France and Canada. - Title: "The next favor. 'A flag to suit the minority.'"

Canada's culture, like that of most any country in the world, is a product of its language(s), religion(s), political and legal system(s). Being a settler nation, Canada has been shaped by waves of migration that have combined to form a unique blend of art, cuisine, literature, humour and music.^[49] Today, Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism rather than cultural assimilation or a single national myth.^[50][51] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a Quebec culture as distinguished from English Canadian culture.^[52] However as a whole Canada is a cultural mosaic a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.^[53][54]

Canadian Government policies such as; publicly-funded health care, higher and more progressive taxation, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, an emphasis on multiculturalism, imposing strict gun control, leniency in regard to drug use and most recently legalizing same-sex marriage - are social indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differ from that of the United States.^[55] American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.^[56] The Government of Canada has also influenced culture with programs, laws and institutions. It has created "crown corporations" to promote Canadian culture through media and has also tried to protect Canadian culture by setting legal minimums on Canadian content.^[57]

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by Aboriginal, French and British cultures and traditions. Most of Canada's territory was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of the Canadian identity.^[58] First Nations played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[59] The British conquest of New France in the mid 1700s brought a large Francophone population under British Imperial rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation.^[60] The new British rulers left alone much of the religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking habitants, guaranteeing the right of the Canadiens to practice the Catholic faith and to the use of French civil law (now Quebec law) through the Quebec Act of 1774.^[61]

Monument to Multiculturalism by Francesco Pirelli in Toronto. Four identical sculptures are located in Buffalo City, Changchun, Sarajevo and Sydney.

The Constitution Act of 1867 was designed to meet the growing calls of Canadians for autonomy from British rule, while avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War in the United States.^[62] The compromises made by the Fathers of Confederation set Canadians on a path to bilingualism, and this in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to both multiculturalism and the recognition of Aboriginal contributions to Canadian society.^[63][64] Through their art and culture, First Nations, Inuit and Métis continue to exert influence on Canadian identity.^[64]

The Canadian Forces and overall civilian participation in the First World War and Second World War helped to foster Canadian nationalism,^[65][66][67] however in 1917 and 1944 conscription crisis's caused a considerable rift along ethnic lines between Anglophones and Francophones.^[68] As a result of the First and Second World Wars, the Government of Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority.^[69] With the gradual loosening of political ties to the United Kingdom and the modernization of Canadian immigration policies, in the 20th century immigrants with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.^[70] The multiple origins immigration pattern continues today with the arrival of large numbers of immigrants from non British or French backgrounds.^[71]

Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the government during the premiership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.^[72] The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.^[73] Multiculturalism is administered by the Department of Canadian Heritage and reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act^[74] and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[75] In parts of Canada, especially the major urban areas, multiculturalism itself is the cultural norm and diversity is a force that unites the community.^[76][77]

In a 2002 interview with the Globe and Mail, Karīm al-Hussainī the 49th Aga Khan of the Ismaili Muslims described Canada as "the most successful pluralist society on the face of our globe", citing it as "a model for the world."^[78] He explained that the experience of Canadian governance - its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its peoples - is something that must be shared and would be of benefit to all societies in other parts of the world.^[78]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Canada

Canada as a nation is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of groups, beliefs and customs.^[79] The preamble to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms references "God", and the monarch carries the title of "Defender of the Faith".^[80] However Canada has no official religion and support for religious pluralism (Freedom of religion in Canada) is an important part of Canada's political culture.^[81][82] With Christianity on the decline, having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life;^[83] it has been recently suggested that Canada has come to enter a post-Christian period in a secular state, where the practice of religion has "moved to the margins of public life", with irreligion in Canada on the rise.^[84]

Top self-identified religious affiliations as of 2001.^[85]

The 2001 Canadian census reported that 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6%).^[86][87] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (9.5%), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other Christians (4.4%).^[87] About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, including agnostics, atheists, humanists, and other groups. The remaining 6.3% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by Judaism (1.1%).^[86][87]

Before the arrival of Europeans, First Nations followed a wide array of mostly animistic religions.^[88] The French were first Europeans to settle in great numbers along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, specifically Latin rite Roman Catholics, including a large number of Jesuits dedicated to converting Aboriginals; an effort that eventually proved successful.^[89] The first large Protestant communities were formed in the Maritimes after the British conquest of New France, followed by American Protestant settlers displaced by the American Revolution.^[90] The late nineteenth century saw the beginning of a large shift in Canadian immigration patterns. Large numbers of Irish and Southern Europeans immigrants were creating new Roman Catholic communities in English Canada.^[91] The settlement of the west brought significant Eastern Orthodox immigrants from Eastern Europe and Mormon and Pentecostal immigrants from the United States.^[92]

The earliest documentation of Jews in Canada are the 1754 British Army records from the French and Indian War.^[93] In 1760, General Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst attacked and won Montreal for the British. In his regiment there were several Jews, including four among his officer corps, most notably Lieutenant Aaron Hart who is considered the father of Canadian Jewry.^[93] The Islamic, Sikhism and Buddhism communities although small, are as old as the nation itself. The 1871 Canadian Census (first "Canadian" national census) indicated thirteen Muslims among the populace,^[94] with approximately 5000 Sikh by 1908.^[95] The first Canadian mosque was constructed in Edmonton in 1938, when there were approximately 700 Muslims in Canada.^[96] Buddhism first arrived in Canada when Japanese immigrated during the late 19th century.^[97] The first Japanese Buddhist temple in Canada was built in Vancouver in 1905.^[98] The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century with Sri Lankan, Japanese, Indian and Southeast Asian customs, has contributed to the recent expansion of the Sikhism and Buddhist communities.^[99]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Canada

Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak English and/or French.^[100]

English - 57.8%

English and French (Bilingual) - 17.4%

French - 22.1%

Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km²)

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively.^[100] Approximately twenty percent or over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue.^[101] Some of the most common first languages include: Chinese (3.1%), Italian (1.4%), German (1.2%), Spanish (1.2%), Punjabi (1.1%), Tagalog (0.9%), Tamil (0.8%), Gujarati (0.6%).^[102] Less than one percent of Canadians (just over 250,000 individuals) know how to speak an aboriginal language. About half this number (129,865) reported using an aboriginal language on a daily basis.^[103]

English and French are recognized by the Constitution of Canada as official languages.^[104] Thus all federal government laws are enacted in both English and French with government services available in both languages.^[104] Two of Canada's territories give official status to indigenous languages. In Nunavut, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun are official languages alongside the national languages of English and French, and Inuktitut is a common vehicular language in territorial government.^[105] In the Northwest Territories, the Official Languages Act declares that there are eleven different languages: Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłįchǫ.^[106] Canadian media offers specialty television channels, newspapers and other publications in many minority languages, that are widely accessible across the county.^[107]

In Canada as elsewhere in the world of European colonization, the frontier of European exploration and settlement tended to be a linguistically diverse and fluid place, as cultures using different languages met and interacted. The need for a common means of communication between the indigenous inhabitants and new arrivals for the purposes of trade and (in some cases) intermarriage led to the development of hybrid languages.^[108] Languages like Michif, Chinook Jargon and Bungi creole tended to be highly localized and were often spoken by only a small number of individuals who were frequently capable of speaking another language.^[109]

Canada

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Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).

Canada
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare (Latin) "From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada" Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[1][2]
Capital		Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.4°N 75.667°W / 45.4; -75.667
Largest city		Toronto
Official language(s)		English and French
Recognised regional languages		Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree, Dëne Sųłiné, Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey and Tłįchǫ Yatiì[3]
Demonym		Canadian
Government		Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy[4]
-	Monarch	Elizabeth II
-	Governor General	David Johnston
-	Prime Minister	Stephen Harper
Legislature		Parliament
-	Upper House	Senate
-	Lower House	House of Commons
Establishment
-	British North America Acts	July 1, 1867
-	Statute of Westminster	December 11, 1931
-	Canada Act	April 17, 1982
Area
-	Total	9,984,670 km2 (2nd) 3,854,085 sq mi
-	Water (%)	8.92 (891,163 km2/344,080 mi2)
Population
-	2011 estimate	34,487,000[5] (36th)
-	2006 census	32,623,490[6]
-	Density	3.41/km2 (228th) 8.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$1.330 trillion[7]
-	Per capita	$39,057[7]
GDP (nominal)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$1.574 trillion[7]
-	Per capita	$46,215[7]
Gini (2005)		32.1[8] (medium)
HDI (2010)		0.888[9] (very high) (8th)
Currency		Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone		(UTC−3.5 to −8)
-	Summer (DST)	(UTC−2.5 to −7)
Date formats		dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy, and yyyy-mm-dd (CE)
Drives on the		Right
ISO 3166 code		CA
Internet TLD		.ca
Calling code		+1
Canada portal

Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.

The land that is now Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

Canada is a federal state that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual nation with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's highly developed countries, Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship. It is a member of the G7, G8, G20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Commonwealth, Francophonie, OAS, APEC, and UN. With the eighth-highest Human Development Index globally, it has one of the highest standards of living in the world.

Contents [hide] 1 History 1.1 Etymology 1.2 Aboriginal peoples 1.3 European colonization 1.4 Confederation and expansion 1.5 Early 20th century 1.6 Modern times 2 Geography 3 Government and politics 3.1 Law 3.2 Foreign relations and military 3.3 Provinces and territories 4 Economy 4.1 Science and technology 5 Demographics 5.1 Language 6 Culture 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External links

History

Main article: History of Canada

See also: Timeline of Canadian history

Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada

The name Canada comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word, kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".^[10] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.^[11] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.^[11]

In the 17th and early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The area was later split into two British colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. They were re-unified as the Province of Canada in 1841.^[12] Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and Dominion (a term from Psalm 72:8) was conferred as the country's title.^[13] As Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.^[14]

Aboriginal peoples

Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada

Archaeological and genetic studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.^[15][16][17] Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the earliest archaeological sites of human (Paleo-Indians) habitation in Canada.^[18][19][20] Among the First Nations peoples, there are eight unique stories of creation and their adaptations.^[21] The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[22][23] Some of these cultures had faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.

The aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000^[24] and two million in the late 15th century,^[25] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.^[26] Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.^[24] Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations,^[27] Inuit,^[28] and Métis.^[29] The Métis are a mixed blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers.^[30] The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.^[31]

European colonization

Main articles: New France and British Canada 1764-1866

Further information: Former colonies and territories in Canada

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759

Europeans first arrived when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000.^[32] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.^[33] Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[34] In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River for France.^[35] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608.^[35] Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out over control of the North American fur trade.^[35]

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and founded the Thirteen Colonies to the south.^[34] A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.^[35] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.^[36]

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.^[14] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[37] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the American Revolution.^[14]

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later the province of Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.^[38]

Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation,^[39] an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and Quebec conferences

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.^[25] From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.^[40] Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.^[24]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[14] The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.^[41] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[42]

Confederation and expansion

Main articles: Canadian Confederation and Territorial evolution of Canada

An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^[43][44][45] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[46] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.^[47] Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his Conservative government established a National Policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.^[45]

To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.^[48][49] In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.^[47]

Early 20th century

Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years

Canadian soldiers at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war.^[50] Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.^[51] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain and,^[50] in 1931, the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.^[4]

The Great Depression brought economic hardship throughout Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) into the 1940s and 1950s.^[52] Canada declared war on Germany independently during the Second World War under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.^[50]

Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.^[50] Canada provided asylum and protection for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied, and is credited by the country for leadership and major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[53] The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.^[50] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[54]

Modern times

Main articles: History of Canada (1945–1960), (1960–1981), (1982–1992), and (1992–present)

At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada, March 31, 1949.

Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined Canada in 1949.^[55] Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,^[56] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,^[57] and official multiculturalism in 1971.^[58] There was also the founding of socially democratic programmes, such as universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[59] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[60] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[61]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970.^[62] The sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976 and organized an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[63] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^[64][65] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.^[63]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;^[66] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;^[67] and the Oka Crisis in 1990,^[68] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.^[69] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late 1990s.^[70] It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded in 2003.^[71]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Canada

A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on the rocky Canadian Shield. Ice and tundra are prominent in the Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains. Flat and fertile prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the Saint Lawrence River (in the southeast), where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing the land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.^[72][73] By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area, Canada ranks fourth.^[73]

The country lies between latitudes 41° and 84°N, and longitudes 52° and 141°W. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141°W longitude,^[74] but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is Canadian Forces Station Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—817 kilometres (450 nautical miles, 508 miles) from the North Pole.^[75] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada also has the longest coastline in the world: 202,080 kilometres (125,570 mi).^[73]

The Horseshoe Falls in Niagara Falls, Ontario, is one of the world's most voluminous waterfalls,^[76] renowned both for its beauty and as a valuable source of hydroelectric power.

The population density, 3.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (8.5 /sq mi), is among the lowest in the world. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.^[77]

Canada has an extensive coastline on its north, east, and west, and since the last glacial period it has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.^[78] Canada has more lakes than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.^[79] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains.

Canada is also geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.^[80] The volcanic eruption of Tseax Cone in 1775 caused a catastrophic disaster, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia; the eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and according to legend of the Nisga'a people, it blocked the flow of the Nass River.^[81]

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary according to the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.^[82]

In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).^[83]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

See also: Elections in Canada and List of political parties in Canada

Parliament Hill in Canada's capital, Ottawa

Canada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a parliamentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy; the monarchy of Canada is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.^{[84][85][86][87]} The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's ten provinces and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (presently David Lloyd Johnston), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.^[88][89]

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited;^[86][90][91] in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (presently Stephen Harper^[92]), the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.^[93] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.^[90] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Jack Layton) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.^[94]

The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill

Each of the 308 Members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a confidence vote in the House.^[95] The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.^[96] Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2011 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the New Democratic Party (the Official Opposition), the Liberal Party of Canada, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial.

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.^[91] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences.^[97][98]

Law

Main article: Law of Canada

See also: Court system of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982) affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, added a constitutional amending formula, and added the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.^[99]

The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the Numbered Treaties, bearing the effigy of Queen Victoria

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. Combined with Canada's late economic development in many regions, this peaceful history has allowed Canadian Indigenous peoples to have a relatively strong influence on the national culture while preserving their own identity.^[100] The Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period. Numbered treaties, the Indian Act, the Constitution Act of 1982, and case laws were established.^[101] A series of eleven treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada from 1871 to 1921.^[102] These treaties are agreements with the Government of Canada administered by Canadian Aboriginal law and overseen by the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. The role of the treaties was reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982, which "recognizes and affirms existing Aboriginal and treaty rights".^[101] These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.^[103] The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.^[101]

The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. (the first female Chief Justice) since 2000.^[104] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels.^[105]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.^[106] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.^[107]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Canadian Forces

Prime Minister Stephen Harper meeting President Barack Obama

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.^[108] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to officially participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.^[109] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, and the Dutch government traditionally gives tulips, a symbol of the Netherlands, to Canada each year in remembrance of the latter's contribution to its liberation.^[53] Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of over 67,000 regular and approximately 43,000 reserve personnel including supplementary reserves.^[110] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the army, navy, and air force.

Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.^[111][112] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.^[113]

The Halifax-class frigate HMCS Regina, a warship of the Canadian Navy

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.^[114] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept. Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,^[50] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.^[115] The number of Canadian military personnel participating in peacekeeping missions has decreased greatly in the past two decades.

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001.^[116] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).^[117]

Canadian Army soldiers from the Royal 22^e Régiment during UNITAS Gold (April 25, 2009)

Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. Canada has committed to withdraw from Kandahar Province by 2011,^[118] by which time it will have spent an estimated total of $11.3 billion on the mission.^[119] Canada and the U.S. continue to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the Canada-United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative.^[120]

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.^[121] In August 2007, Canadian sovereignty in Arctic waters was challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.^[122] In July 2010 the largest purchase in Canadian military history, totaling C$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35 fighters was announced by the federal government.^[123] Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the development of the F-35 and has invested over C$168 million into the program.^[124]

Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada

See also: Canadian federalism

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories. The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.^[125]

A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Canada

Current Canadian banknotes, depicting (top to bottom) Wilfrid Laurier, John A. Macdonald, Queen of Canada (Elizabeth II), William Lyon Mackenzie King, and Robert Borden

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income. It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G8, and is one of the world's top ten trading nations.^[126] Canada is a mixed market, ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom.^[127] The largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.^[128]

In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other First World nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.^[129] Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most important.^[130]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.^[131] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta has large oil and gas resources. The immense Athabasca Oil Sands give Canada the world's second-largest oil reserves, behind Saudi Arabia.^[132]

Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.^[133] Canada is the largest producer of zinc and uranium, and is a global source of many other natural resources, such as gold, nickel, aluminum, and lead.^[131] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.^[134]

Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).^[135]

In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "Investment Canada" in order to encourage foreign investment.^[136] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s.^[133] In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under Jean Chrétien began to post annual budgetary surpluses and steadily paid down the national debt.^[137] The 2008 global financial crisis caused a recession, which could increase the country's unemployment rate to 10 percent.^[138] In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion was from the United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billion from the United Kingdom.^[128] The country’s 2009 trade deficit totaled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.^[139]

As of October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate was 8.6 percent. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 5.8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador.^[140] Between October 2008, and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.^[141] Canada's federal debt is estimated to be $566.7 billion for 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09.^[142] Canada’s net foreign debt rose by $40.6-billion to $193.8-billion in the first quarter of 2010.^[143]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Canada

Canada is an industrial nation with a highly developed science and technology sector. Nearly 1.88 percent of Canada's GDP is allocated to research & development (R&D).^[144] The country has ten Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine.^[145] Canada ranks twelfth in the world for Internet usage with 28.0 million users, 84.3 percent of the total population.^[146]

The Canadarm in action on the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-116

The Canadian Space Agency conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and develops rockets and satellites. In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-41-G. Canada was ranked third among 20 top countries in space sciences.^[147] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station and one of the world's pioneers in space robotics with the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre. Since the 1960s, Canada Aerospace Industries have designed and built 10 satellites, including RADARSAT-1, RADARSAT-2 and MOST.^[148] Canada also produced one of the most successful sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1000 have been launched since they were initially produced in 1961.^[149] Universities across Canada are working on the first domestic landing spacecraft: the Northern Light, designed to search for life on Mars and investigate Martian electromagnetic radiation environment and atmospheric properties. If the Northern Light is successful, Canada will be the third country to land on another planet.^[150]

Demographics

Historical populations
Year	Pop.	%±
1851	2,415,000	—
1861	3,174,000	31.4%
1871	3,689,000	16.2%
1881	4,325,000	17.2%
1891	4,833,000	11.7%
1901	5,371,000	11.1%
1911	7,207,000	34.2%
1921	8,788,000	21.9%
1931	10,377,000	18.1%
1941	11,507,000	10.9%
1951	14,009,000	21.7%
1961	18,238,000	30.2%
1971	21,962,000	20.4%
1981	24,820,000	13.0%
1991	28,031,000	12.9%
2001	31,021,000	10.7%
2010 est.	34,487,000	11.2%
Source: Statistics Canada[151]

Main article: Demographics of Canada

See also: Ethnic groups in Canada

The Canada 2006 Census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4 percent since 2001.^[152] Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of Canada's population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border.^[153] A similar proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, the BC Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.^[154] In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of the population was 39.5 years.^[155]

According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (32%), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), First Nations (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (3.3%).^[156] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 people.^[157]

Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and 3.8 percent of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2 percent of the population belonged to non-aboriginal visible minorities.^[158] The largest visible minority groups in Canada are South Asian (4.0%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%). Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 percent.^[159] As of 2007, almost one in five Canadians (19.8%) were foreign-born. Nearly 60 percent of new immigrants come from Asia (including the Middle East).^[160] The leading emigrating countries to Canada were China, Philippines and India.^[161] By 2031, one in three Canadians could belong to a visible minority group.^[162]

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,^[163] driven by economic policy and family reunification, and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2011, the same number of immigrants as in recent years.^[164] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto and Vancouver.^[165] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees.^[166] The country resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees.^[167]

According to the 2001 census, 77.1 percent of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (9.5% of Canadians), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other Christians (4.4%). About 16.5 percent of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3 percent are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by Judaism (1.1%).^[168]

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography. The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,^[169] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.^[73] In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.^[170]

	Largest metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2006 Census)						view · talk · edit
Name	Province	Pop.	Name	Province	Pop.
Toronto	Ontario	5,113,149	Kitchener–Waterloo	Ontario	451,235
Montreal	Quebec	3,635,571	St. Catharines–Niagara	Ontario	390,317
Vancouver	British Columbia	2,116,581	Halifax	Nova Scotia	372,858
Ottawa–Gatineau	Ontario–Quebec	1,130,761	Oshawa	Ontario	330,594
Calgary	Alberta	1,079,310	Victoria	British Columbia	330,088
Edmonton	Alberta	1,034,945	Windsor	Ontario	323,342
Quebec City	Quebec	0715,515	Saskatoon	Saskatchewan	233,923
Winnipeg	Manitoba	0694,898	Regina	Saskatchewan	194,971
Hamilton	Ontario	0692,911	Sherbrooke	Quebec	186,952
London	Ontario	0457,720	St. John's	Newfoundland and Labrador	181,113

Language

Main article: Spoken languages of Canada

Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official bilingualism is defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.^[171]

English and French are the mother tongues of 59.7 and 23.2 percent of the population respectively. Approximately 98 percent of Canadians speak English or French: 57.8% speak English only, 22.1% speak French only, and 17.4% speak both.^[172] English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0 and 23.6 percent of the population respectively.^[173]

The Charter of the French Language makes French the official language in Quebec.^[174] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.^[175] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.^[176]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.^[177] There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, made up of more than 65 distinct dialects.^[178] Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.^[179] Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.^[180] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.^[181]

Over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue.^[182] Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,012,065 first-language speakers), Italian (455,040), German (450,570), Punjabi (367,505) and Spanish (345,345).^[183] and the languages most spoken at home by 68.3 percent and 22.3 percent of the population respectively.^[184]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

See also: Canadian Art, Music of Canada, Sport in Canada, and National symbols of Canada

Canada has a diverse makeup of nationalities and cultures, and has constitutional protection for policies that promote multiculturalism.^[185] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and many French-speaking commentators speak of a culture of Quebec as distinguished from English Canadian culture;^[186] however, as a whole Canada is a cultural mosaic—a collection of several regional, aboriginal, and ethnic subcultures.^[187] Government policies such as publicly-funded health care, higher taxation to distribute wealth, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, an emphasis on multiculturalism, strict gun control, and legalization of same-sex marriage are social indicators of how Canada's political and cultural evolution differs from that of the United States.^[188]

Bill Reid's sculpture Raven and The First Men, showing part of a Haida creation myth. The Raven is a figure common to many mythologies in aboriginal culture.

Historically Canada has been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions. Through their culture, language, art and music, aboriginals continue to influence the Canadian identity.^[189] Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.^[60] However, the country's culture has been heavily influenced by that of the United States because of its proximity and the high rate of migration between the two countries. American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.^[190] Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada, and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.^[191]

The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916; oil on canvas, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada

Canadian visual art has been dominated by Tom Thomson — Canada's most famous painter — and by the Group of Seven. Thomson's brief career painting Canadian landscapes spanned just a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.^[192] The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists — Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley — were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.^[193] Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.^[194]

The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.^[195] Canada's music broadcasting is regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences administers Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which commenced in 1970.^[196] The national anthem of Canada O Canada adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.^[197] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.^[198]

A scene at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver seconds after Team Canada won gold in men's ice hockey

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.^[199] Hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the sport most played by Canadians, with 1.65 million participants in 2004.Canada's six largest metropolitan areas—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton—have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the NHL than from all other countries combined. Other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL). Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, cricket, volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.^[200]

Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Canada was the host nation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.^[201]

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, on the penny, and on the Coat of Arms.^[202] Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,^[202] and more recently, the totem pole and Inukshuk.^[203]