World: The American Crime

Seven daring but inept Tokyo thugs planned a kidnaping that would rock the nation. Their intended victim: Emperor Hirohito's youngest daughter, the former Princess Suga. She was to be held for $138,888, the biggest ransom in Japanese history. Disguised as a meter reader, one plotter entered and cased the princess' house. The gang moved in for the snatch three times, only to have something go awry. Before they could make a fourth try, the police were tipped off and collared the gang, building an airtight case with full confessions. Yet last spring the accused were convicted only of trespassing and illegal possession of weapons. They got mild sentences of eight months to three years.

Unlike the U.S., where the sentence might be death, Japan is so lighthearted about kidnaping that sentences for the most successful snatches (unless they involve murder) seldom exceed six months. Japanese law is modeled on the German criminal code of 1907, which viewed kidnaping as a minor crime because it was so rare. But in postwar Japan, the soft law and a yen for yen have sharply increased what the French call "the American crime." Over a ten-year period, Japan recorded 4,728 kidnap cases, and the maximum penalty of ten years was given only 2% of the perpetrators.

For a while, it all seemed an unpleasant but harmless game, since the vast majority of the victims got home unscathed. But in two grisly cases last year, one victim was raped and murdered, and no trace has ever been found of the other. Clumsy police work encouraged cries for reform. One of the judges in the Suga case lamented, "Our criminal-code statutes are sadly out of line with our sense of values."

The Diet last week approved far stiffer laws, including a kidnap penalty of three years to life, and the country's first kidnap-conspiracy rap (one month to two years). But if kidnapers give their victim a break, they will still get a break from the law: those who surrender and do not harm their victims will have their sentences halved. With time off for good behavior, a kidnaper sentenced to life may be sprung in seven years.

The Soon to Emerge Crisis in Ethiopia: A n American Legacy?

The Soon to Emerge Crisis in Ethiopia: A Bush Legacy?

By Scott A Morgan

Most of the Critics of American Policy in the Horn of Africa generally focus on the fiasco in Somalia. But recent reports are indicating that a Key Regional Ally could possibly be in Danger of Collapsing.

One of the most contested regions in East Africa is the Ogaden Region in Ethiopia which lies along the Border between Ethiopia and Somalia. The Two Countries fought a Border Conflict in 1977 which saw the Soviet Union switch its allegiances from Mogadishu to Addis Ababa. After that conflict the Area became a hot spot in the Cold War. After the Collapse of the Soviet Union the Governments of both countries collapsed. Currently there is a Pro-Western Government in Addis Ababa and there is not a strong centralized Government in Somalia.

Since the Fall of the Siad Barre Government in 1991 Ethiopia has sent Forces into Somalia on three occasions. On All Three Occasions theses actions were seen to be proxy conflicts on behalf of the United States. The latest Incursion in December 2006 had Military Support from the United States. The US has been concerned about the rise of Somali Islamists ever since the Day of the Rangers in 1993. In that Battle 18 Members of the US Special Forces were killed trying to apprehend a Somali Warlord.

Ever Since the Controversial Decision to Prop up the TNG there has been a plethora of Problems for Prime Minister Zenawi. Obviously the Move was not popular with the Islamists in Somalia but that decision also led to rising tensions with Eritrea. The two countries fought a War that led to the establishment of an Independent Eritrean State. Now tensions are again rising along the border between the two countries. The Eritreans have been attempting to have the UN Mission leave its territory and the Ethiopians are still concerned.

The situation in Somalia is not the reason to be concerned however. The Area of concern should be the Ogaden Region. Although it has not garnered major coverage in the International Media it has been reported by the various Online Media Outlets from the region. According to Some Outlets a new series of clashes occured last week with reports of heavy casualties on both sides during the series of skirmishes. In the Past the Ogaden has been the base of the Anti-Zenawi Opposition in Ethiopia.

What should the United States do in this instance? There has been Legislation Drafted that would Limit the amount of Military Assistance to be provided by the US to the Improvement of the Human Rights Climate in Ethiopia. This is a good Idea. The US should also assist Civil Society Groups trying to promote Good Governance in Addis Ababa and other areas of Ethiopia. And it should work with Prime Minister Zenawi to promote a Free Vibrant and Independent Media. That is what the US should do at the very least. Now that there is a Change in Washington maybe that will happen.

The Author Publishes Confused Eagle on the Internet. It can be found at morganrights.tripod.com

Obama Criticizes ‘Bush-McCain’ Cuba, Latin America Policy *

By Mary Lu Carnevale

Susan Davis reports on the presidential race.

In a speech today on Cuba and U.S.-Latin American policy, Barack Obama will reiterate his pledge to immediately allow “unlimited” family travel and remittances to the island if he is elected president—policies that would loosen restrictions imposed under the current administration. In the excerpts of the speech provided by the campaign, the Illinois senator does not address easing or lifting the trade embargo.

“It’s time to let Cuban Americans see their mothers and fathers, their sisters and brothers. It’s time to let Cuban American money make their families less dependent upon the Castro regime,” the Democratic presidential front-runner is expected to tell a Miami audience.

Barack Obama addressed the Cuban American National Foundation on Cuba and Latin American policy at a Cuban Independence Day Celebration in Miami on Friday (Assocated Press)

In several, pointed critiques, Obama aligns expected Republican nominee John McCain with President Bush on Cuba and Latin American policy. Three days earlier, McCain also gave a speech on the same topic in Miami in which he criticized Obama’s foreign policy views.

The Illinois senator defends himself against McCain’s attacks that he would “sit down unconditionally” with Cuban leader Raul Castro, but he does acknowledge his position to meet with foreign leaders without preconditions.

“Now let me be clear. John McCain’s been going around the country talking about how much I want to meet with Raul Castro, as if I’m looking for a social gathering,” Obama says. “That’s never what I’ve said, and John McCain knows it. After eight years of the disastrous policies of George Bush, it is time to pursue direct diplomacy, with friend and foe alike, without preconditions. There will be careful preparation. We will set a clear agenda. And as president, I would be willing to lead that diplomacy at a time and place of my choosing, but only when we have an opportunity to advance the interests of the United States, and to advance the cause of freedom for the Cuban people.”

Obama mentions Bush almost as frequently as he mentions McCain—a broader political effort by Democrats to align the Arizona senator with the unpopular president in the general election campaign.

“I will never, ever, compromise the cause of liberty. And unlike John McCain, I would never, ever, rule out a course of action that could advance the cause of liberty,” Obama says. “We’ve heard enough empty promises from politicians like George Bush and John McCain. I will turn the page.”

Obama further attacks McCain for joining “the parade of politicians who make the same empty promises year after year, decade after decade,” and says that “you can’t take his so-called straight talk seriously.”

On Latin America, Obama says he will create and a regional energy initiative to develop alternative and clean energy sources (an unusual proposal in an area with ample oil and gas resources), and offer more development assistance to the poor. He also pledges to broaden U.S. efforts to crack down on drug trafficking, and to expand diplomatic efforts by creating a Special Envoy for the Americas in the White House and expand Peace Corps efforts in Latin America.

Obama is opposed to the U.S.-Colombia free trade deal, but he takes a somewhat softer rhetorical approach on trade in this speech that he has on the campaign trail, where both he and Sen. Hillary Clinton have been highly critical of U.S. trade policy.

“Trade must be part of the solution,” he says, “But I strongly reject the Bush-McCain view that any trade deal is a good deal. …There’s nothing protectionist about demanding that trade spreads the benefits of globalization, instead of steering them to special interests while we short-change workers at home and abroad.”

American-Muslim Consumer Identity

Michael wrote this white paper for the Contemporary Muslim Consumer Cultures conference at Freie Universitat in Berlin. It has also been presented at the American Muslim Consumer Conference and at Texas A&M’s Race, Ethnicity & New Media symposium. In Fall 09, Cambridge Scholars Publishing will include it in their book Muslim Societies in the Age of Mass Consumption.

Excerpts from this paper and interviews relating to topic can be found in Ad Age, Religioscope, Huffington Post, Agency Spy and The National.

I’ve seen plenty of things making FUN of us. We would love to be part of a general marketing campaign if the media world would accept Muslims as a common part of the North American diaspora.
-Amethyst, Creator of Ninjabi

It is impossible for media to recognize the emergence of the Black Nerd as a lifestyle when the media on a whole chooses not to look at Black Males directly in the eye. I’m glad that popular culture is [now] recognizing us, if only to use that recognition to sell us more bullshit.
-Dallas Penn, Blogger

Introduction
Advertising in the United States has often influenced the pop-culture identities of religious and ethnic minorities. To be targeted by marketers serves as an invitation to join in the national narrative of capitalism. To shop is to be an American.

While this act of inclusion has merit, it has also fostered myopic marketing campaigns. Rather than diversity being, well, diverse, minority-targeted advertising often traffics in reductive stereotypes of soul claps and sombreros. While some of this is due to those creating content, it is also the fault of mass media, one historically comprised of “few senders and many receivers.” (Anderson 2003)

But this is slowly changing. In 2008, with the new media environment of blogs, video and social networks, we are beginning to see a more accurate depiction of minority groups. Why? Because there is more content and the media is being created by them, not about them. Dialogue is supplanting monologue.

In the coming years, the US market will likely begin to recognize and court the $170 billion purchasing power of American-Muslims. To date, pop-culture representations of Islam are either cloaked in evil or infused with pathos. But as Hallmark, Wal-Mart and 20th Century Fox begin creating content geared toward this demographic, it will slowly help to prove that American-Muslims are not only ‘as boring as the rest of us [Americans]‘ but also, as Amethyst states above ‘a common part of the North American diaspora.’

When considering this slow embrace of the Islamic consumer, our analysis must recognize legal scholar Leti Volpp’s point that:

September 11 facilitated the consolidation of a new identity category that groups together persons who appear “Middle Eastern, Arab, or Muslim.” This consolidation reflects a racialization wherein members of this group are identified as terrorists and disidentified as citizens.(2002)

With this in mind, we will look at Islamic identity within American advertising + film, mass media + new media, and how these arenas engage the act of cultural citizenship and the process of ‘being/becoming American’.

Source + Style
Given that this paper is for an academic conference, I want to make a quick note.

I was invited to contribute not as an academic, but as a working member of the American advertising industry – one that often avoids engaging the nuances of race, religion and ethnicity, instead opting for code works like ‘urban’ or window dressing for the idea of diversity. Seeing as this industry moves billions of dollars, this lack of open engagement is not just feckless, it is a missed market opportunity. Money is being left on the table. I write this paper with the hope that it might be read not only within academia, but also by members of the advertising industry. The majority of my source material is drawn from blogs, newspapers and interviews. My goal is to situate and frame various voices that are speaking about Islamic identity, as produced and consumed within America. It is an ongoing and living document.

Framing of Inquiry
Let us first examine the ways mass media in the US constructs the identities of ‘Islam’ and ‘America’:

Islam
Understanding Volpp’s point about the “consolidation [of people into] ‘Middle Eastern, Arab, or Muslim’ that are identified as terrorists and disidentified as citizens,” it is also important to note that American-Muslims are targets of both the US War on Terror and the War on Illegal Immigration. (Maira, 2008)

On the cover of the New Yorker magazine, Democratic Presidential candidate Barack Obama was portrayed as an anti-American, terrorist Muslim (flag burning in fireplace, portrait of Osama bin Laden) and his wife Michelle is portrayed as black nationalist Angela Davis, a woman who was once on the FBI Most Wanted List and politically
aligned with the Black Panthers. This picture captures (and attempts to satirize) the idea held by some that Obamas are Muslim and ergo threatening terrorist/non-citizens.

In the 1960′s Civil Rights Movement, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was a Christian and Malcolm X was a Muslim. X’s most famous statement is:

We declare our right on this earth to be a man, to be a human being, to be respected as a human being, to be given the rights of a human being in this society, on this earth, in this day, which we intend to bring into existence by any means necessary.

This was perceived as a stark threat to the physical and financial comfort of (White-)America. The current leader of the Nation of Islam, Minister Louis Farrkhan, is situated within mass media as anti-Semitic/anti-American, furthering the ‘threat’ of Islam.

The US government’s Pro-Israel policy is conversely Anti-Palestine and is thus imbued with and interpreted as having an Anti-Islam stance.

America
Is America Ready For a Black President? This is a question that mass media has been asking ever since Obama declared his candidacy. This question truly means, and mass-media had dodged this fact till Fall 08: Is (White-)America Ready for a Black President? This question, when placed astride racial hypens and prefixes (African-, Hispanic-, Asian-, etc), creates the impression that the only true Americans are of Anglo-Saxon descent. And let us not forget that the American promise of ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ was accorded only to property-owning European men.

In interviews for both this paper and other Desedo research projects, many non-white interviewees see the idea/ideal of ‘America’ as something that both overtly and covertly aims to exclude them from the national narrative. This is part of the representational politics of a country that is 68% White, with a House of Representatives that is 83.5% White and the Senate, 94%.

If one is a US citizen of the hyphenate class, his supposedly inalienable rights are however often imperiled. Middle-aged Hispanic-Americans in Texas are having to prove their legal citizenship. Nineteen different states have proposed laws to re-prove citizenship in order to vote – which will primarily disenfranchise poor and/or minority Americans who do not have adequate paperwork. These are the some of the same folks who were prevented from voting in the contested 2000 Presidential race. And of course there are the hundreds of thousands of Middle-Eastern, Arabian, Desi folks who since 9/11 have been denied due process and the supposed rights of American citizenry.

In the days after 9/11, the Ad Council of America created a Public Service Announcement (PSA) called ‘I Am An American’ in “direct response to the hundreds of hate crimes against Arabs, Muslims and Sikhs.” The goal was to paint a unified yet diverse portrait of America to prevent any further attacks. Yet, shockingly, within this framework “and despite seeking to deconstruct the binary between the citizen and the terrorist, Arabs, Muslims and Sikhs are not specifically included in this diverse display. There are no visible markers of anything Arab, Muslim or Sikh in the ads – no veil, no mosque, no turban, no beard, no clothing [or] accent.” Ergo such people are not ‘An American’.(Alsultany 2007)

In June 2008, Barack Obama was giving a speech in Detroit, MI where two hijabis were asked to not stand behind him while he spoke. Their hijabs were visual signifiers of their Muslim religion, and thus un-American. Note that had they not been wearing hijabs, they may not have been ‘identified’ as Muslims, and likely not excluded from the diverse background tapestry that all political candidates seek. Interestingly enough, I posit that had a Republican candidate been on stage, s/he may have courted this ‘background’. Within American politics, both parties often play to the center in pursuit of votes – Republicans not wanting to appear too white and Democrats not wanting to appear too diverse.

Cultural Citizenship: Advertising
Given the vagaries of legal citizenship, the importance of cultural citizenship comes to the fore. Our national narrative is marked by acts and activities that are tied to an occasionally abstract idea of ‘America’ – sports like baseball or football, food like Thanksgiving Dinner, Apple Pie, McDonalds, activities like Boy Scouts, PTA, Church, etc… Like much of Brand America, these activites are seen as virtuous and ‘from the heartland’. In the post-9/11 space, The Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) released a series of ads entitled ‘I Am An American Muslim’ in the effort to place Islam within this American narrative.

While via CAIR American-Muslims have advertised themselves within the Brand America, the reverse has not yet happened – as of fall 2008, American brands are not yet reaching out to American-Muslims and their $170B of spending power. Let us not forget that we are a capitalist country that cleaves shopping with national and religious holidays. And that president George W. Bush urged Americans to express their patriotism through the act of purchasing in the aftermath of 9/11. To shop is to be a good American.

As noted in a New York Times article about article about ad agency JWT’s study of American-Muslims:

Almas Abbasi, a radiologist in Long Island [...] said she would be grateful for advertising that included Muslims “Ramadan starts, and you see an ad in the newspaper saying, ‘Happy Ramadan, here’s a special in our store’ everyone will run to that store,” she said.

Now American brands indeed do this within primarily Islamic countries – Burger King in UAE, HP in Bangladesh, Oreos in Indonesia etc. It’s pretty mundane. But to date, no Muslim holidays are seized as a sales opportunity within the US, except perhaps in Dearborn, Michigan, a city which has the highest concentration of Muslims and Middle Eastern folks in America. Wal-Mart, the largest retailer and (private) employer of Americans in 2008, has opened a store in Dearborn designed specifically for the Muslim and Middle-Eastern consumer:

Wal-Mart offers its standard fare, plus 550 items targeted at Middle Eastern shoppers…. To fit into this bastion of ethnic tradition, Wal-Mart started two years ago to meet with imams and moms, conducting focus groups at Middle Eastern restaurants.

Walk through the front door of the 200,000-square-foot supercenter and instead of rows of checkout counters, you find a scene akin to a farmers market in Beirut. Twenty-two tables are stacked high with fresh produce like kusa and batenjan, squash and eggplant used in Middle Eastern dishes. Rimming the produce department are shelves filled with Arab favorites like mango juice from Egypt and vine leaves from Turkey used to make mehshi, or stuffed grape leaves. A walled- off section of the butcher case is devoted to Halal meats…in the freezer case, you’ll find frozen falafel. You can also pick up a CD from Lebanese pop singer Ragheb Alama or buy Muslim greeting cards.

Ikea has taken similar, but smaller, measures to court Dearborn shoppers and the local McDonalds and KFC serve halal. On the national scale, Hallmark carries Eid cards and the United States Postal Service issued an Eid stamp in 2001 (thought there was a backlash in which people attempted to boycott the stamp because Eid spelled backwards is ‘Die’) But that’s about it, except, as a friend reminded me, “in advertisements for Universities to emphasis their ‘diversity’.”

Now while tailoring stores to reach this consumer base is one important step for retailers, they should not forget that “the average Muslim consumer is much like the average American consumer, with wants and needs mainly dictated by their income, education, and type of family. Their socioeconomic status dictates their spending habits more than their religious affiliation.” (Y. Hafiz, 6/12/08) When speaking about Saatchi & Saatchi’s strategic ‘Lovemarks’ with Dilara Hafiz, co-author of The American-Muslim Teenager’s Handbook, she mused “…wow – it would be great if they saw a whole new field of Muslim consumers just eager to purchase products due to their amazing ads :) Seriously – there’s a lot of untapped buying potential amongst all these doctors & engineers.”

And as noted by Sara on her blog Muslim Canvas:

I guess the value I see in this marketing stuff is the effect it’ll have on the American psyche, rather than the Muslim psyche necessarily. An image of a hijabi mom spreading Jif peanut butter on her son’s sandwich, or of a long-bearded man answering the door on a Domino’s commercial, could go a long way for our ‘image’.

But this is not yet happening for several reasons. The first of which is that “part of the problem is that it is difficult for ad execs to create an advertising profile for Muslims as a whole, because [they] come from many diverse backgrounds and believe many different things.” (I. Hafiz, 6/12/08) Advertising is an industry that operates by committee – many rounds of approval and risk management – so there is an institutional aversion to engaging a seemingly complex demographic, one where there is the chance of ‘getting it wrong.’ (Robert, 9/7/08)

While Sara’s above point on Muslim Canvas is wholly correct, on the flipside there is the issue that “…portraying ‘Islam’ could fall into stereotypical depictions of women in headscarves and guys with long dishdashas and beards…in reality, any of the people in [any] commercial could be a Muslim, but unless they wear their faith in their clothing, it’s not something that will be obvious.”(Fakhraie, 6/12/08)

There is in fact a history of missteps by American businesses within the context of advertising and Islam – oddly enough none of them were borne out of an effort to reach the consumer demographic, but from using Islam as a backdrop or subtext for general market adverts. There is also an unspoken fear about engaging a supposedly ‘controversial’ consumer group – remember ˜terrorist/non-citizen”.

In a Spring 2008 campaign for Dunkin Donuts, spokeswoman Rachel Ray wore a scarf that looked like a keffiyeh. Conservative blogger and FOX analyst Michelle Malkin chided Ray for wearing a “jihadi chic” garment. In the ensuing media maelstrom Dunkin Donuts dropped the advert.

While I am certain that any brand considering this space will be aware of the inflammatory anti-Muslim backlash that foments in the blogosphere, I posit that this may be similar to the hurdles brands face when reaching out to gay and lesbian consumers. And as Saad Ahmad, the 20 year old author of the blog Chill Yo, Islam Yo, pointed out: “Seeing that we live in a capitalist society [including Islam] in advertising is really just an economic issue.” If there is money to be made, this may indeed happen. So soon come the adverts.

Cultural Citizenship: Film & TV
It is common knowledge in the US that the onscreen portrayals of Muslims/Middle Eastern/Arab/Desi is often not a positive experience. Chicago Tribune reporter Kiran Ansari notes that in the book Guilty: Hollywood’s Verdict on Arabs after 9/11

…author Jack Shaheen states that in the hundred new movies he reviewed about Arab characters in the post-9/11 period, 1 out of 4 are not even set in the Middle East, yet they have a dubious Arab character thrown in. And although I realize that no one should rely on Hollywood as a source of information, a misrepresentation of any issue or minority group can trickle down to become public perception.

While there may actually be an upswing in positive portrayals within small independent films, there is also the danger of falling into the same reductive typecasting that created the Hollywood stock character of the Magic Negro: African-American characters that exist because most Hollywood screenwriters don’t know much about black people…so instead of getting life histories or love interests, they get magical powers” that ultimately serve to benefit the white protagonists.

The 2007 CW series Aliens in America treads in this territory, in which the character Raja, a Pakistani-Muslim exchange student in Wisconsin, served as a vehicle for the other characters to become more enlightened about the world. As noted by the blog Ultrabrown in an extensive review of the show’s place within our national narrative, it “gives a middle-class Pakistani kid a kurta, a fakey accent and a higher Allah-per-sentence ratio than a Wahhabi cleric. So last night’s premiere was, of course, a big hit with the mainstream media.” The Magical Muslim is a “comical friendly ‘terrorist’ [who] can win the hearts of a white community and an American viewership.”

Again, keeping Volpp’s identity conflation in mind, I think a more exciting moment was the 2005 film Harold and Kumar go to White Castle. The brilliance of this film is that it is the first time a Hollywood feature portrayed an Indian-American and a Korean-American as ‘Red Blooded American Males’. Like millions of other American men in the 18-34 demographic, Harold & Kumar’s prime objective was a holy trinity of bong hits, bare breasts + burgers. Ever present were their races and cultures, but instead of being mined as tropes for pathos, the exotic, or education they were well employed as one of many narrative and comic elements.

Many people loved Harold and Kumar as the first bawdy blockbuster that spoke to their same-but-different status as hyphenated Americans. While the character Kumar, played by Kal Penn, is not tied to any religion, multiple times in the film White-Americans engage him as if he were a terrorist/ non-citizen/Muslim.

The film was popular enough at the box office to spawn the 2008 sequel Harold and Kumar Escape From Guantanamo Bay. And while it’s not very good film, cultural critic Oliver Wang points out that it’s actually “…an achievement of a kind too, proof that Asian Americans have made it far enough into the Hollywood machine that they can make perfectly mediocre mainstream fare as much as the next folks. Woo hoo, the promised land.” Boring as the rest of us, welcome to America.

What’s next? Hollywood studio 20th Century Fox has acquired the US rights to develop a version of the popular Canadian CBC TV show Little Mosque on the Prairie. Having a sitcom that is centered on an ethnic, religious, racial or social group is another American rite of passage. While many of these shows do fall into reductive stereotype, some become historic, like The Cosby Show, heralded throughout mass media for “it’s help in improving race relations by projecting universal values that both Whites and Blacks could identify with, using the tried and true format of the television sitcom.” (Feagin & Inniss 1995)

Will Little Mosque have such a profound effect? If nothing else, it will make waves as the first of it’s kind in the US, a space in which lines like: “It’s a perfect Muslim solution – nobody is happy” are not pernicious, but funny. The blog Muslimah Media Watch has done a brilliant job in parsing the first two seasons of the CBC show and reminds us that it “portrays a certain group of Muslims who follow Islam in a certain way. Although many Muslims may agree with most of the message, the message is still a conservative one.” Sobia from Muslimah Media Watch points out that even within this conservative rubric, we see “…husband and wife characters Yaser and Sarah…showing affection toward one another in public.” Amongst some this has raised the thread:

How dare she touch her husband’s ass in public? If Muslims are being depicted on television, they damn well better be behaving like ‘good’, ‘pure’, and ‘proper’ Muslims.

Sobia’s response is that this is:

A bit preachy if you ask me – and not to mention unrealistic! In my opinion, depicting Muslims engaging in lusty or affectionate behaviour…aides in the process of ‘normalizing’ us. After all, is this not how we behave? Do Muslim couples not show affection toward each other in public?…Or must we portray this facade of ‘virginal purity’ and display our modesty at all times?…Why must we shove morality, or at least one particular version of it, in everyone’s face.

What will be most interesting to see is how the mass media receives Little Mosque and reports on the subsequent public responses. Will there be product placement? In the Fall 2008 season of the CBC version, the massive Canadian insurance provider Cooperators is integrated into the narrative. Will the US version see Jiff or Dominoes in the kitchen? This could indeed help to achieve comedian Maz Jobrani’s hope that Americans begin to understand that Iranians bake cookies too – sans explosives.

It is indeed comedy that most often breaks down barriers between cultures, and at the vanguard of this is often standup comedy, which marks an “assimilat[ion] into the American way of self-lampooning or satirizing, which is part of the society.” Predating 20th Century Fox’s option on Little Mosque are two US comedy tours that have since made it onscreen – Axis of Evil and Allah Made Me Funny. As the producer of Axis said:

…this is the last stereotype to be broken down. In the same way you look back at Dick Gregory [black] or Latinos or gays, it’s very much a moment. There is always a moment in time when society was not ready to confront stereotypes. For people of Middle Eastern descent, [other] people aren’t quite ready to confront those stereotypes.

While both the film and tour of Allah Made Me Funny feature all Muslim comedians, only one of the four Axis of Evil comedians, Ahmed Ahmed, is a Muslim. Axis, which has played to wide audiences on Comedy Central, as has a special called The Watch List, engages the issue of conflation. In fact, comedian Dean Obeidallah, who is half Italian/half Palestinian, said in a PBS special that before 9/11, he “was just a white guy.” Since then, he has become more aware of and involved with his Arabic identity, first in response to how others defined it and then how he could “try to do something to define who we are, the right way…it’s up to us to go out there and do that.”

Mass media recognizing both the social and market value of this comic vein is invaluable, but Maz Jobrani reminds us that it is not about waiting for this to happen within mass media – it is about taking control as an individual author. When I interviewed him, Jobrani noted that:

People write to me and say “Hey Maz, why don’t you do this or talk about that?“ and my response is “No. Better yet – YOU can do this – with the tools of new media, I am not the only mouthpiece of Iranian comics – you too can make these jokes and get them out there to the masses” and this is a great thing.

Cultural Citizenship: New Media
Jobrani’s support of young comics to create and distribute their own content is symbolic of what I think is the most important act within the arena of ‘becoming’ American – authorship. Obedelliah chooses define himself in response to others foisting a (mis)identity upon him. Ali Ardekani created the YouTube world of Baba Ali. The American-Muslim Teenage Handbook was borne out of the Hafiz family’s realization that since “…there is no single head of Islam…why not define ourselves?”

This definition of self is inherently difficult within mass media, due to the ‘few senders and many receivers’ model. Minority groups often have but one or two examples of self that supposedly stand in for millions. Little Mosque will play that role soon within the American primetime TV space (likely a welcome replacement to the conflated villains within 24, Sleeper Cell, Traitor, etc.. ).

It is new media that offers the greatest opportunity for expression of self, as the space serves to “multiply rather than reduce the number and range of message producers and [is] far more interactive, not only in the minimal sense of an increased range of choice, than mass media.” Fatemeh Fakhraie, Editor-in-Chief of Muslimah Media Watch, which is both an analysis of mass media and an access point to all other Muslimah bloggers, started the blog “because I didn’t see any representation of Muslim women in either mainstream or feminist publications. We weren’t given a voice; we are only talked about.”

While we are looking at this identity construction within the space of Islam, over the last 10 years there have been many hyphenated Americans who, within the new media space, have been able to remix their identity within public space – and in turn secure for themselves a more powerful and complex voice within mass media. Three quick examples of note are:

Black Nerds
Over the last few years, we have seen a media rise in black skaters, black rockers, black videogamers and a successful new strain of hip-hop, all of which run counter to the standard mass media image of black man as athelete/rapper/criminal. Why? Director Raafi Rivero posits that perhaps:

The proliferation of media voices and sources enabled by the internet has allowed a more nuanced and less gangster voice of young black America to emerge, untempered by market concerns and sensationalism…that because of our more democratized communication tools we are beginning to see a more accurate depiction of black america. Mainly because, you know, that media is actually being created by, ahem, black people.

Gay/Lesbian
I recently interviewed a peer who had been struggling with his gay identity at the turn of the century – he knew that he was gay – but did not want to partake in the public ritual of attending gay bars/clubs. Nor did he want to ‘declare’ himself gay for fear that to do so was fraught with signifiers and would cause others (both hetero- and homo-) to reduce him to a stereotype. But via the internet he was able to find likeminded men, while their sexual inclinations were gay, they did not fit the mass media portrayal of homosexuality. By becoming empowered through this online space, he, and many of his friends decided to come out of the closet – a trend that we have seen as manifested in the ‘gay population explosion’ over the past 10 years. With an increased public presence, there is in turn a greater diversity of voices at the table.

Sex Workers
The current trend of sexually forward and tart-tongued heroines in major films and TV shows (Washingtonienne, Juno, Secret Diary of a Call Girl) are all rooted in sex-worker literature – the majority of which began in the blogosphere. Also note the rise of Neo Burlesque and Suicide Girls. Via authoring and distributing their own stories, sex workers are now newly ‘revealed’ to be, of course, nuanced and complex human beings, or boring as the rest of us, not simply a ‘Hooker With a Heart of Gold’ or a ‘Dumb Tramp’.

Islam?
Where might new media take Islamic Identity in the US? Well even with the advent of comedy, sitcoms and Wal-Mart, Fatemeh of Muslimah Media Watch notes that:

Islam’s presence in [mass media] is increasingly religious, – things like beards, keffiyehs, terrorism, niqabs, and strict gender segregation and other “rules” are often what gets aired in the [mass media], and thus that’s what people think of when they hear Islam.

Offsetting this narrow scope, new media is the space within which one can tease out different aspects of his or her personality by being a creater/consumer or viewer/user. A young man can more easily be a Pious Muslim/Skater/Fan of Batman/Blogger all at once. Rather than waiting for mass-media to say OMG look at the soccerplaying hijabi, that teen, for whom this multiplicity is wholly normal, will be likely be online accessing those different parts of herself. And of course there is a robust Muslim blogosphere. What is so unique to online? It is

a sphere of creole discourse and creole journeys, an intermediate sphere between more private worlds and those of public rituals; it is part of a continuum between those along which social actors can move. Viewed statically, as languages, creoles appear mixed; but viewed dynamically, as speech communities, they look more like intermediate points on a continuum of activities and encounters that people enter and leave.(Anderson 2003)

It is the easiest space in which to be American, to be Muslim, to be both and beyond.

It is indeed these young folks who likely be at the vanguard of the morphing Islamic identity within America. While the runway chic of Balenciaga, Raf Simons and TSE have been mining the visual language of hijabs and keffiyehs far more important is the young design collective MSLM that remixes Islam with hip-hop style in Rotterdam. Fashion blogs like Hijab Style and We Love Hijab. The US teen magazine Muslim Girl, small-press hipster t-shirts that celebrate Ramadan and Hijabman’s tweaking of an old Irish saying. This content is disseminated, consumed and remixed by others online and authored by/for young Muslims.

Online we see the comic strip Ninjabi, authored by a young woman in New Jersey, what she sees as “something for the new generation of muslim girls to look up to – a character cross between then popular powerpuff girls, and a somewhat devout muslim who cares for human rights, taking a hidden ninja lifestyle to help others.” And then a girl in Texas started another comic of the same name. Might there soon there be a third?

As media scholar Faris Yakob points out in his thesis I Believe The Children Are Our Future “If we look to those under 25, we see not incremental but qualitative shifts in behaviour. The generation gap has never been wider, because kids can control their own experiences of ideas in a way the generations that grew up before never could.” It is these digital natives who truly understand duality. They are the first generation who can bifurcate themselves, not with the negative connotations usually ascribed to such cleavage, but in a way that actually makes them more holistic.

They can likely slide between the terrorist/non-citizen label, and be both American and Muslim -not ‘become’ American as mass-media may be waiting to see, or confer – but be – as they already are. It is this new media space that will likely feed ‘new’ identity politics to advertising, film and mass media. It is this authorship that hopefully will diversely define the forthcoming Muslim Consumer space within America.

History of the United States

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"American history" redirects here. For the history of the continents, see History of the Americas.

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The history of the United States traditionally starts with the Declaration of Independence in the year 1776, yet its territory was occupied first by the Native Americans since prehistoric times and then also by European colonists who followed the voyages of Christopher Columbus starting in 1492. The largest settlements were by the English on the East Coast, starting in 1607. By the 1770s the Thirteen Colonies contained two and half million people, were prosperous, and had developed their own political and legal systems. The British government's threat to American self-government led to war in 1775 and the Declaration of Independence in 1776. With major military and financial support from France, the patriots won the American Revolution. In 1789 the Constitution became the basis for the United States federal government, with war hero George Washington as the first president. The young nation continued to struggle with the scope of central government and with European influence, creating the first political parties in the 1790s, and fighting a second war for independence in 1812.

U.S. territory expanded westward across the continent, brushing aside Native Americans and Mexico, and overcoming modernizers who wanted to deepen the economy rather than expand the geography. Slavery of Africans was abolished in the North, but heavy world demand for cotton let it flourish in the Southern states. The 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln calling for no more expansion of slavery triggered a crisis as eleven slave states seceded to found the Confederate States of America in 1861. The bloody American Civil War (1861–65) redefined the nation and remains the central iconic event. The South was defeated and, in the Reconstruction era, the U.S. ended slavery, extended rights to African Americans, and readmitted secessionist states with loyal governments. The national government was much stronger, and it now had the explicit duty to protect individuals. Reconstruction was rolled back by the white South, leaving the blacks in a world of Jim Crow political, social and economic inferiority. The entire South remained poor while the North and West grew rapidly.

Thanks to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the North and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers from Europe, the U.S. became the leading industrialized power by 1900. Disgust with corruption, waste, and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement, 1890s-1920s, which pushed for reform in industry and politics and put into the Constitution women's suffrage and Prohibition of alcohol (the latter repealed in 1933). Initially neutral in World War I, the U.S. declared war on Germany in 1917, and funded the Allied victory. The nation refused to follow President Woodrow Wilson's leadership and never joined the League of Nations. After a prosperous decade in the 1920s the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long world-wide Great Depression. A political realignment expelled the Republicans from power and installed Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt and his elaborate and expensive New Deal programs for relief, recovery, and reform. Roosevelt's Democratic coalition, comprising ethics in the north, labor unions, big-city machines, intellectuals, and the white South, dominated national politics into the 1960s. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II alongside the Allies and helped defeat Nazi Germany in Europe and, with the detonation of newly-invented atomic bombs, Japan in Asia and the Pacific.

The Soviet Union and the U.S. emerged as opposing superpowers after the war and began the Cold War confronting indirectly in an arms race, the Space Race, and intervention in Europe and eastern Asia. Liberalism reflected in the civil rights movement and opposition to war in Vietnam peaked in the 1960s–70s before giving way to conservatism in the early 1980s. The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, leaving the U.S. to prosper in the booming Information Age economy that was boosted, at least in part, by information technology. International conflict and economic uncertainty heightened by 2001 with the September 11 attacks and subsequent War on Terror and the late-2000s recession.

Contents [hide] 1 Pre-Columbian era 2 Colonial period 2.1 Spanish, Dutch, and French colonization 2.2 British colonization 2.3 Political integration and autonomy 3 Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789) 4 Early national era (1789–1849) 5 Civil War era (1849–1865) 5.1 Civil War 6 Reconstruction and a rise in power (1865–1918) 6.1 Reconstruction 6.2 Gilded Age and Progressivism 6.3 Imperialism 6.4 World War I 6.5 Woman suffrage 7 Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and World War II (1918–1945) 7.1 Great Depression 7.2 World War II 8 The Cold War begins (1945–1964) 9 Climax of liberalism 9.1 The Civil Rights Movement 9.2 The Women's Movement 10 The Counterculture Revolution and Cold War Détente (1964–1980) 11 The end of the Cold War (1980–1991) 12 World superpower (1991–present) 12.1 9/11 and the War on Terror 12.2 Recent events 13 See also 14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links

[edit] Pre-Columbian era

Main article: Pre-Columbian era

See also: Native Americans in the United States

It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska, and then spread southward throughout the Americas. This migration might have begun as early as 30,000 years ago^[1] and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period.^[2] These early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.

The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing.

[edit] Colonial period

The Spanish conquistador Coronado explored parts of the American Southwest from 1540 to 1542.

Main article: Colonial history of the United States

After a period of exploration by people from various European countries, Spanish, Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established. In the 16th century, Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back to Europe maize, potatoes, tobacco, beans, and squash. The disease environment was very unhealthy for explorers and early settlers. The Native Americans became exposed to new diseases such as smallpox and measles and died in very large numbers, usually before large-scale European settlement began.

[edit] Spanish, Dutch, and French colonization

Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to arrive in what is now the United States with Christopher Columbus' second expedition, which reached Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493; others reached Florida in 1513.^[3] Quickly Spanish expeditions reached the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon^[4] and the Great Plains. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of Southeast. Also in 1540 Francisco Vázquez de Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas.^[5] The Spanish sent some settlers, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565, but it attracted few permanent settlers. Much larger and more important Spanish settlements included Santa Fe, Albuquerque, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco.^[6]

European territorial claims in North America, c. 1750

France

Kingdom of Great Britain

Spain

New Netherland was the 17th century Dutch colony centered on New York City and the Hudson River Valley, where they traded furs with the Native Americans to the north and were a barrier to Yankee expansion from New England. The Dutch were Calvinists who built the Reformed Church in America, but they were tolerant of other religions and cultures. The colony was taken over by Britain in 1664. It left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life, including a secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism in the city, a rural traditionalism in the countryside typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle, and politicians such as Martin Van Buren, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt.^[7]

New France was the area colonized by France from 1534 to 1763. There were few permanent settlers outside Quebec, but Indian tribes often became military allies in France's wars with Britain. After 1750 the Acadians—French settlers who had been expelled by the British from Acadia (Nova Scotia)—resettled in Louisiana, where they developed a distinctive rural Cajun culture that still exists. They became American citizens in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase.^[8] Other French villages along the Mississippi and Illinois rivers were absorbed when the Americans started arriving after 1770.

[edit] British colonization

Further information: British colonization of the Americas

The Mayflower, which transported Pilgrims to the New World. During the first winter at Plymouth, about half of the Pilgrims died.^[9]

The strip of land along the eastern seacoast was settled primarily by English colonists in the 17th century, along with much smaller numbers of Dutch and Swedes. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that employed forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude,^[10] and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect) that permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.^[11] Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants.^[12]

The first successful English colony was established in 1607, on the James River at Jamestown. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture based on tobacco. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to their American colonies.^[13] One example of conflict between Native Americans and English settlers was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia, in which Native Americans had killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflict between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century was King Philip's War in New England,^[14] although the Yamasee War may have been bloodier.^[15]

The Plymouth Colony was established in 1620. New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630.^[16] The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony the last of the Thirteen Colonies established in 1733.^[17] Methodism became the prevalent religion among colonial citizens after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival led by preacher Jonathan Edwards in 1734.^[16]

[edit] Political integration and autonomy

Join, or Die: This 1756 political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War.

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. The influence of the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, the French and North American Indians, was significantly reduced. Moreover, the war effort resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to "Join or Die".

Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and stabilizing relations with the native Indians. In ensuing years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies to help pay for troops stationed in North America following the British victory in the Seven Years' War.

The British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of this military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense. The colonists did not share this view. Rather, with the French and Indian threat diminished, the primary outside influence remained that of Britain. A conflict of economic interests increased with the right of the British Parliament to govern the colonies without representation being called into question.

Nathaniel Currier's 1846 depiction of the Boston Tea Party.^[18]

The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by colonists in the town of Boston to protest against the taxes levied by the British government. Parliament responded the next year with the Coercive Acts, which sparked outrage and resistance in the Thirteen Colonies. Colonists convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king for redress of those grievances.

The Congress also called for another meeting if their petition did not halt enforcement of the Coercive Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War.

[edit] Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789)

Main article: History of the United States (1776–1789)

Washington's surprise crossing of the Delaware River in Dec. 1776 was a major comeback after the loss of New York City; his army defeated the British in two battles and recaptured New Jersey.

The Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776 as the United States of America. In the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783) the American capture of the British invasion army at Saratoga in 1777 secured the Northeast and encouraged the French to make a military alliance with the United States. France brought in Spain and the Netherlands, thus balancing the military and naval forces on each side as Britain had no allies.^[19] General George Washington (1732-1799) proved an excellent organizer and administrator, who worked successfully with Congress and the state governors, selecting and mentoring his senior officers, supporting and training his troops, and maintaining an idealistic Republican Army. His biggest challenge was logistics, since neither Congress nor the states had the funding to provide adequately for the equipment, munitions, clothing, paychecks, or even the food supply of the soldiers. As a battlefield tactician Washington was often outmaneuvered by his British counterparts. As a strategist, however, he had a better idea of how to win the war than they did. The British sent four invasion armies. Washington's strategy forced the first army out of Boston in 1776, and was responsible for the surrender of the second and third armies at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781). He limited the British control to New York and a few places while keeping Patriot control of the great majority of the population. The Loyalists, whom the British counted upon too heavily, comprised about 20% of the population but never were well organized. As the war ended, Washington watched proudly as the final British army quietly sailed out of New York City in November 1783, taking the Loyalist leadership with them. Washington astonished the world when instead of seizing power for himself, he retired quietly to his farm in Virginia. ^[20] Political scientist Seymour Martin Lipset observes, "The United States was the first major colony successfully to revolt against colonial rule. In this sense, it was the first 'new nation'."^[21]

Trumbull's Declaration of Independence

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, declared the independence of "the United States of America" in the Declaration of Independence. July 4 is celebrated as the nation's birthday. The new nation was founded on Enlightenment ideals of liberalism in what Thomas Jefferson called the unalienable rights to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," and dedicated strrongly to republican principles. Republicanism emphasized the people are sovereign (not hereditary kings), demanded civic duty, feared corruption, and rejected any aristocracy.^[22]

In the 1780s the national government was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which were ceded by the states to Congress and became territories; soon they became states. Nationalists worried that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. Nationalists—most of them war veterans—organized in every state and convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The delegates from every state wrote a new Constitution that created a much more powerful and efficient central government, one with a strong president, and powers of taxation. The new government reflected the prevailing republican ideals of guarantees of individual liberty and upon constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers.^[23]

To assuage the Anti-Federalists who feared a too-powerful national government, the nation adopted the United States Bill of Rights in 1791. Comprising the first ten amendments of the Constitution, it guaranteed individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice, jury trials, and stated that citizens and states had reserved rights (which were not specified).^[24]

[edit] Early national era (1789–1849)

Main article: History of the United States (1789–1849)

See also: First Party System and Second Party System

Economic growth in America per capita income

George Washington—a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention—became the first President of the United States under the new Constitution in 1789.

The major accomplishments of the Washington Administration were creating a strong national government that was recognized without question by all Americans, and, following the plans of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, assuming the debts of the states (the debt holders received federal bonds), creating the Bank of the United States to stabilize the financial system, setting up a uniform system of tariffs (taxes on imports) and other taxes to pay off the debt and provide a financial infrastructure. To support his programs Hamilton created a new political party—the first in the world based on voters—the Federalist Party. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the opposition, forming an opposition Republican Party (usually called the Democratic-Republican Party by historians). Hamilton and Washington presented the country in 1794 with the Jay Treaty that reestablished good relations with Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently protested, and the voters aligned behind one party or the other, thus setting up the First Party System. The treaty passed, but politics became very heated.^[25]

The Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, when western settlers protested against a federal tax on liquor, was the first serious test of the federal government. Washington called out the state militia and personally led an army, as the insurgents melted away and the power of the national government was firmly established.^[26]

Washington refused to serve more than two terms--setting a precedent--and in famous his farewell address, he extolled the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and formation of political parties.^[27]

John Adams, a Federalist, defeated Jefferson in the 1796 election. War loomed with France and the Federalists used the opportunity to try to silence the Republicans with the Alien and Sedition Acts, build up a large army with Hamilton at the head, and prepare for a French invasion. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a successful peace mission to France that ended the Quasi-War of 1798. Jefferson defeated Adams for the presidency in the 1800 election.^[28]

Territorial expansion of the United States, omitting Oregon and other claims.

Although the Constitution included a Supreme Court, its functions were vague until John Marshall, the Chief Justice (1801–35), defined them, especially the power to overturn acts of Congress that violated the Constitution, first enunciated in 1803 in Marbury v. Madison.^[29] The Louisiana Purchase, in 1803, removed the French presence from the western border of the United States and provided U.S. settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River.^[30]

In response to multiple grievances, the Congress declared war on Britain in 1812. The grievances included humiliating the Americans in the Chesapeake incident of 1807, continued British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, restrictions on trade with France, and arming hostile Indians in Ohio and the western territories.^[31] The War of 1812 ended in a draw after bitter fighting that lasted until January 8, 1815, during the Battle of New Orleans. The Americans gained no territory but were cheered by a sense of victory in what they called a "second war of independence". The war was a major loss for Native American tribes in the Northwest and Southeast who had allied themselves with Britain and were defeated on the battlefield.

As strong opponents of the war, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 that hinted at disunion. National euphoria after the victory at New Orleans ruined the prestige of the Federalists and they no longer played a significant role.^[32] President Madison and most Republicans realized it had been a mistake to let the Bank of the United States close down, for its absence greatly hindered the financing of the war. So they chartered the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The Republicans also imposed tariffs designed to protect the infant industries that had been created when Britain was blockading the U.S. With the collapse of the Federalists as a party, the adoption of many Federalist principles by the Republicans, and the systematic policy of President James Monroe in his two terms (1817–25) to downplay partisanship, the nation entered an Era of Good Feelings, with far less partisanship than before (or after), and closed out the First Party System.^[33][34]

The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States. The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to American and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere.^[35]

Settlers crossing the Plains of Nebraska

In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. This established Andrew Jackson, a military hero and President, as a proponent of the forcible removal of native populations to the West.^[36] The act resulted most notably in the Trail of Tears, a forced migration of several native tribes to the West, with several thousand people dying en route, and the Creeks' violent opposition and eventual defeat. The Indian Removal Act also directly caused the ceding of Spanish Florida and led to the many Seminole Wars.^[37]

After 1840 the abolitionist movement redefined itself, mobilized its supporters (especially among religious people in the Northeast affected by the Second Great Awakening), escalated its attacks, and proclaimed slave ownership a sin, not just an unfortunate social evil. It gained tens of thousands of followers. William Lloyd Garrison published the most influential of the many anti-slavery newspapers, The Liberator, while Frederick Douglass, an ex-slave, began writing for that newspaper around 1840 and started his own abolitionist newspaper North Star in 1847.^[38]

The Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845.^[39] The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated Mexico in 1848 during the Mexican-American War. Public sentiment in the U.S. was divided as Whigs^[40] and anti-slavery forces^[41] opposed the war. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, New Mexico, and adjacent areas to the United States, about thirty percent of Mexico. Westward expansion was enhanced further by the California Gold Rush, the discovery of gold in that state in 1848. Numerous "forty-niners" trekked to California in pursuit of gold; land-hungry European immigrants also contributed to the rising white population in the west.^[16] In 1849 cholera spread along the California and Oregon Trails. An estimated 150,000 Americans died during the two cholera pandemics between 1832 and 1849.^[42]

[edit] Civil War era (1849–1865)

Main article: History of the United States (1849–1865)

The Union: blue (free), yellow (slave);
The Confederacy: brown
*territories in light shades

In the middle of the 19th century, white Americans of the North and South were to reconcile fundamental differences in their approach to government, economics, society and African American slavery. The issue of slavery in the new territories was settled by the Compromise of 1850 brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included admission of California as a free state and the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act to make it easier for masters to reclaim runaway slaves.^[39] In 1854, the proposed Kansas-Nebraska Act abrogated the Missouri Compromise by providing that each new state of the Union would decide its stance on slavery.^[43]

By 1860, there were nearly four million slaves residing in the United States, nearly eight times as many from 1790; within the same time period, cotton production in the U.S. boomed from less than a thousand tons to nearly one million tons per year. There were some slave rebellions—including by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), and Nat Turner (1831)—but they all failed and led to tighter slave oversight in the south.^[44]

Abraham Lincoln with Allan Pinkerton and Major General John Alexander McClernand at the Battle of Antietam.

After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election, eleven Southern states seceded from the union between late 1860 and 1861, establishing a new government, the Confederate States of America, on February 8, 1861.^[45] Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia, which became West Virginia, four of the five northernmost "slave states" did not secede and became known as the Border States.^[45]

[edit] Civil War

Further information: American Civil War

The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina.^[46] In response to the attack, on April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and "preserve the Union", which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. The two armies had their first major clash at the First Battle of Bull Run, which ended in a surprising Union defeat, but, more importantly, proved to both the Union and Confederacy that the war was going be much longer and bloodier than they had originally anticipated.

The war soon divided into two theaters: Eastern and Western. In the western theater, the Union was quite successful, with major battles, such as Perryville, producing strategic Union victories and destroying major confederate operations.

Anger at military conscription during the American Civil War led to the New York Draft Riots of 1863, one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history. The city's Irish and Excelsior brigades were among the five Union brigades with the most combat dead.

In the Eastern theater, things did not start well for the Union. In the summer of 1861, General Irvin McDowell was given the task of destroying the Confederacy in one quick battle with the newly created Army of Northeastern Virginia. Union and Confederate forces engaged in combat at Manassas Junction (Bull Run), which resulted in a surprising Union defeat due in part to steadfast Confederate defense. Following McDowell's failure, Major General George B. McClellan was put in charge of the Union armies. After reorganizing the new Army of the Potomac, McClellan failed to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia in his Peninsula Campaign and retreated after attacks from newly appointed Confederate General Robert E. Lee.

Feeling confident in his army after defeating the Union at Second Bull Run, Lee embarked on an invasion of the north that was stopped by McClellan at the bloody Battle of Antietam. Despite this, McClellan was relieved from command for refusing to pursue Lee's crippled army. The next commander, General Ambrose Burnside, suffered a humiliating defeat by Lee's smaller army at the Battle of Fredericksburg late in 1862, causing yet another change in commanders. Lee won again at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863, while losing his top aide, Stonewall Jackson. But Lee pushed too hard and ignored the Union threat in the west.^{[citation needed]} Lee invaded Pennsylvania in search of supplies and to cause war weariness in the North. In perhaps the turning point of the war, Lee's army was badly beaten at the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, and barely made it back to Virginia.

Simultaneously on July 4, 1863, Union forces under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. Lincoln made General Grant commander of all Union armies.

The last two years of the war was bloody for both sides, with Grant launching a war of attrition against General Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. This war of attrition was divided into three main campaigns. The first of these, the Overland Campaign forced Lee to retreat into the city of Petersburg where Grant launched his second major offensive, the Richmond-Petersburg Campaign in which he sieged Petersburg. After a near ten-month siege, Petersburg surrendered. However, the defense of Fort Gregg allowed Lee to move his army out of Petersburg. Grant pursued and launched the final, Appomattox Campaign which resulted in Lee surrendering his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House.^[45] Other Confederate armies followed suit and the war ended.

Based on 1860 census figures, about 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South,^[47] establishing the American Civil War as the deadliest war in American history. Its legacy includes ending slavery in the United States, restoring the Union, and strengthening the role of the federal government. The social, political, economic and racial issues of the war decisively shaped the Reconstruction era, which lasted through 1877, and brought about changes that would eventually help make the country a united superpower.

[edit] Reconstruction and a rise in power (1865–1918)

Main article: History of the United States (1865–1918)

[edit] Reconstruction

Further information: Reconstruction era of the United States

Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad (1869) at First Transcontinental Railroad, by Andrew J. Russell

Reconstruction took place for most of the decade following the Civil War. During this era, the "Reconstruction Amendments" were passed to expand civil rights for black Americans. Those amendments included the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment that guaranteed citizenship for all people born or naturalized within U.S. territory, and the Fifteenth Amendment that granted the vote for all men regardless of race. While the Civil Rights Act of 1875 forbade discrimination in the service of public facilities, the Black Codes denied blacks privileges readily available to whites.^[48]

In response to Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged around the late 1860s as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights. Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 and vigorous enforcement closed down the Klan and classified the KKK as a terrorist group. However, an 1883 Supreme Court decision nullified the Civil Rights Act of 1875 and ended federal efforts to stop private acts of violence designed to suppress legal rights.^[49]

During the era, many regions of the southern U.S. were military-governed and often corrupt; Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election between Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes and Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden. Hayes won the election, and the South soon re-entered the national political scene.^[50]

[edit] Gilded Age and Progressivism

Further information: Gilded Age and Progressive Era

The "Gilded Age" was a term that Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late 19th century when there had been a dramatic expansion of American wealth and prosperity. Reform of the Age included the Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs. Other important legislation included the Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business. Twain believed that this age was corrupted by such elements as land speculators, scandalous politics, and unethical business practices.^[51]

By 1890 American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other world nations. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, wheat and cotton farmers joined the Populist Party.^[52] An unprecedented wave of immigration from Europe served both to provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the United States.^[53] The workers' demand for control of their workplace led to the often violent rise of the labor movement in the cities and mining camps. Industrial leaders included John D. Rockefeller in oil and Andrew Carnegie in steel; both became leaders of philanthropy, giving away their fortunes to create the modern system of hospitals, universities, libraries and foundations.

Mulberry Street, along which Manhattan's Little Italy is centered. Lower East Side, circa 1900. Almost 97% of residents of the 10 largest American cities of 1900 were non-Hispanic whites.^[54]

Dissatisfaction on the part of the growing middle class with the corruption and inefficiency of politics as usual, and the failure to deal with increasingly important urban and industrial problems, led to the dynamic Progressive Movement starting in the 1890s. In every major city and state, and at the national level as well, and in education, medicine, and industry, the progressives called for the modernization and reform of decrepit institutions, the elimination of corruption in politics, and the introduction of efficiency as a criteria for change. Leading politicians from both parties, most notably Theodore Roosevelt, Charles Evans Hughes, and Robert LaFollette on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan on the Democratic side, took up the cause of progressive reform. Women became especially involved in demands for woman suffrage, prohibition, and better schools; their most prominent leader was Jane Addams of Chicago. Progressives implemented anti-trust laws and regulated such industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments—the Sixteenth through Nineteenth—resulted from progressive activism, bringing the federal income tax, direct election of Senators, prohibition, and woman suffrage.^[55] The Progressive Movement lasted through the 1920s; the most active period was 1900–1918.^[56]

[edit] Imperialism

Further information: American imperialism

The United States emerged as a world economic and military power after 1890. The main episode was the Spanish–American War, which began when Spain refused American demands to reform its oppressive policies in Cuba. The "splendid little war", as one official called it, involved a series of quick American victories on land and at sea. At the Treaty of Paris peace conference the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. Cuba became an independent country, under close American tutelage. Although the war itself was widely popular, the peace terms proved controversial. William Jennings Bryan led his Democratic Party in opposition to control of the Philippines, which he denounced as imperialism unbecoming to American democracy. President William McKinley defended the acquisition, and was riding high as the nation had returned to prosperity and felt triumphant in the war. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in a rematch in the 1900 presidential election. After defeating an insurrection by Filipino nationalists, the United States engaged in a large scale program to modernize the economy of the Philippines, and dramatically upgrade the public health facilities.^[57] By 1908, however, Americans lost interest in an empire, and turned their international attention to the Caribbean, and especially the building of the Panama Canal. The canal opened in 1914, and increased trade with Japan and the rest of the Far East. A key innovation was the Open Door Policy, whereby the imperial powers were given equal access to Chinese business, with no one of them allowed to take control of China.^[58]

[edit] World War I

Main articles: American entry into World War I and United States home front during World War I

While World War I raged in Europe from 1914, the U.S. pursued a policy of neutrality until disputes with Germany over unrestricted submarine warfare, among other disagreements, erupted into an American declaration of war in April 1917.^[59] The U.S. had previously shown interest in world peace by participating in the Hague Conferences. American involvement in the war proved essential to the Allied victory in 1918. President Woodrow Wilson also implemented a set of propositions titled the Fourteen Points to ensure peace, but they were denied at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Isolationist sentiment following the war also blocked the U.S. from participating in the League of Nations, an important part of the Treaty of Versailles.^[16]

[edit] Woman suffrage

Further information: Women's suffrage in the United States

Alice Paul wrote the Equal Rights Amendment, whose passage would become an important goal of the Women's Liberation Movement half a century later.

The women's suffrage movement began with the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, and the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women. Many of the activists became politically aware during the abolitionist movement. The women's rights campaign during "first-wave feminism" was led by Mott, Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, among many others. The movement reorganized after the Civil War, gaining experienced campaigners, many of whom had worked for prohibition in the Women's Christian Temperance Union. By the end of the 19th century a few western states had granted women full voting rights,^[60] though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody.^[61]

Around 1912 the feminist movement, which had grown sluggish, began to reawaken, putting an emphasis on its demands for equality and arguing that the corruption of American politics demanded purification by women, because men could not do that job.^[62] Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their "Silent Sentinels" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners.^[63]

Finally, the suffragettes were ordered released from prison, and Wilson urged Congress to pass a Constitutional amendment enfranchising women. The old anti-suffragist argument that only men could fight a war, and therefore only men deserve the right to vote, was refuted by the enthusiastic participation of tens of thousands of American women on the home front in World War I. Across the world, grateful nations gave women the right to vote. Furthermore, most of the Western states had already given the women the right to vote in state and national elections, and the representatives from those states, including the first woman Jeannette Rankin of Montana, demonstrated that woman suffrage was a success. The main resistance came from the south, where white leaders were worried about the threat of black women voting. Nevertheless Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment in 1919. It became constitutional law on August 26, 1920, after ratification by the 36th required state.^[64]

NAWSA became the League of Women Voters and the National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972. Politicians responded to the new electorate by emphasizing issues of special interest to women, especially prohibition, child health, and world peace.^[65][66] The main surge of women voting came in 1928, when the big-city machines realized they needed the support of women to elect Al Smith, while rural dries mobilized women to support Prohibition and vote for Republican Herbert Hoover.^[67]

[edit] Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and World War II (1918–1945)

Main article: History of the United States (1918–1945)

Prohibition agents destroying barrels of alcohol in Chicago, 1921

Following World War I, the U.S. grew steadily in stature as an economic and military world power. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles imposed by its Allies on the defeated Central Powers; instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism, if not isolationism.^[68] The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in real fears of communism in the United States, leading to a three-year Red Scare. In 1918 the U.S. lost 675,000 people to the Spanish flu pandemic.^[69]

In 1920, the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol was prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment. Prohibition encouraged illegal breweries and dealers to make substantial amounts of money selling alcohol illegally. The Prohibition ended in 1933, a failure. Additionally, the KKK re-formed during that decade and gathered nearly 4.5 million members by 1924, and the U.S. government passed the Immigration Act of 1924 restricting foreign immigration.^[70] The 1920s were also known as the Roaring Twenties, due to the great economic prosperity during this period.^{[citation needed]} Jazz became popular among the younger generation, and thus was also called the Jazz Age.

[edit] Great Depression

Further information: Great Depression

Dorothea Lange's Migrant Mother depicts destitute pea pickers in California, centering on a mother of seven, age 32, in Nipomo, California, March 1936.

During most of the 1920s, the United States enjoyed a period of unbalanced prosperity: farm prices and wages fell, while new industries and industrial profits grew. The boom was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to the Stock Market Crash on October 29, 1929.^[71] This, along with many other economic factors, triggered a worldwide depression known as the Great Depression. During this time, the United States experienced deflation, unemployment soared from 3% in 1929 to 25% in 1933, and manufacturing output collapsed by one-third.

In 1932, Democratic presidential nominee Franklin D. Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people",^[72] a phrase that has endured as a label for his administration and its many domestic achievements. The desperate economic situation, along with the substantial Democratic victories in the 1932 elections, gave Roosevelt unusual influence over Congress in the "First Hundred Days" of his administration. He used his leverage to win rapid passage of a series of measures to create welfare programs and regulate the banking system, stock market, industry and agriculture, along with many other government efforts to end the Great Depression and reform the American economy. Some programs that were a part of Roosevelt's New Deal include the Works Progress Administration (WPA) relief program, the Social Security Act, the Emergency Banking Act, and the Economy Act. The recovery was rapid in all areas except unemployment,^{[citation needed]} which decreased yet remained fairly high until 1940.^[73]

[edit] World War II

The Japanese hoped to cripple American naval power in the Pacific with the attack on Pearl Harbor, a naval base in Hawaii.

Further information: World War II and United States home front during World War II

In the Depression years the United States remained focused on domestic concerns while democracy declined across the world and many countries fell under the control of dictators. Imperial Japan asserted dominance in East Asia and in the Pacific. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy militarized to and threatened conquests, while Britain and France attempted appeasement to avert another war in Europe. U.S. legislation in the Neutrality Acts sought to avoid foreign conflicts, however policy clashed with increasing anti-Nazi feelings following the German invasion of Poland in September 1939 that started World War II. Roosevelt positioned the U.S. as the "Arsenal of Democracy" pledging full-scale financial and munitions support for the Allies—but no soldiers.^[74] Japan tried to neutralize America's power in the Pacific by attacking Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which catalyzed American support to enter the war and seek revenge.^[75]

The main contributions of the U.S. to the Allied war effort comprised money, industrial output, food, petroleum, technological innovation, and (especially 1944-45), soldiers. Much of the focus in Washington was maximizing the economic output of the nation. The overall result was a dramatic increase in GDP, the export of vast quantities of supplies to the Allies and to American forces overseas, the end of unemployment, and a rise in civilian consumption even as 40% of the GDP went to the war effort. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low-productivity occupations to high efficiency jobs, improvements in productivity through better technology and management, and the move into the active labor force of students, retired people, housewives, and the unemployed, and an increase in hours worked. It was exhausting; leisure activities declined sharply. People tolerated the extra work because of patriotism, the pay, and the confidence it was only "for the duration" and life would return to normal as soon as the war was won. Most durable goods became unavailable, and meat, clothing, and gasoline was tightly rationed. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled, and Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war instead of a return to depression.^[76][77]

The Allies--the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union, as well as China, Canada and other countries—fought the Axis powers powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allies saw Germany the as main threat, and gave highest priority to Europe. The U.S. dominated the war against Japan, and stopped Japanese expansion in the Pacific in 1942. After losing top the Japanese Pearl Harbor and in the Philippines, and drawing the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the American Navy inflicted a decisive blow at Midway (June 1942). American ground forces assisted in the North African Campaign that eventually concluded with the collapse of Mussolini's fascist government in 1943, as Italy switched to the Allied side. A more significant European front was opened on D-Day, June 6, 1944, in which American and Allied forces invaded Nazi-occupied France from Britain.

The Normandy landings began the Allied march toward Germany from the west.

On the home front, mobilization of the U.S. economy was managed by Roosevelt's War Production Board. The wartime production boom led to full employment, wiping out this vestige of the Great Depression. Indeed, labor shortages encouraged industry to look for new sources of workers, finding new roles for women and blacks.^[78]

However the fervor also inspired anti-Japanese sentiment, which responded by removing everyone of Japanese descent from the West Coast war zone.^[79] Research and development took flight as well, best seen in the Manhattan Project, a secret effort to harness nuclear fission to produce highly-destructive atomic bombs.^[80]

The Allied pushed the Germans out of France, but faced an unexpected counterattack at the Battle of the Bulge in December. The last-ditch German effort failed, and as 1945 opened Allied armies in East and West were converging on Berlin, as the Nazis hurriedly tried to kill the last remaining Jews. The western front stopped short, leaving Berlin to the Soviets as the Nazi regime formally capitulated in May 1945, ending the war in Europe.^[81] Over in the Pacific, the U.S. implemented an island hopping strategy toward Tokyo, establishing airfields for bombing runs against mainland Japan from the Mariana Islandsand achieving hard-fought victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa in 1945.^[82] Bloodied at Okinawa, the U.S. prepared to invade Japane's home islands when B-29's dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities, forcing the empire's surrender in a matter of days and thus ending World War II.^[83] The U.S. occupied Japan (and part of Germany), sending Douglas MacArthur to restructure the Japanese economy and political system along American lines.^[84]

Though the nation lost more than 400,000 soldiers,^[85] the mainland prospered untouched by the devastation of war that inflicted a heavy toll on Europe and Asia.

Participation in postwar foreign affairs marked the end of predominant American isolationism. The awesome threat of nuclear weapons inspired both optimism and fear. Nuclear weapons were never used after 1945, as both sides drew back from the brink and a "long peace" characterized the Cold War years, 1947–1991. There were, however, regional wars in Korea and Vietnam.^[86]

[edit] The Cold War begins (1945–1964)

Main article: History of the United States (1945–1964)

President Kennedy's Civil Rights Address, June 11, 1963.

Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers. The U.S. Senate on a bipartisan vote approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward more international involvement.

The primary American goal of 1945–48 was to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and to contain the expansion of Communism, represented by the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine of 1947 provided military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey to counteract the threat of Communist expansion in the Balkans. In 1948, the United States replaced piecemeal financial aid programs with a comprehensive Marshall Plan, which pumped money into the economy of Western Europe, and removed trade barriers, while modernizing the managerial practices of businesses and governments. The Plan's $13 billion budget was in the context of a U.S. GDP of $258 billion in 1948, and was on top of $12 billion in American aid to Europe between the end of the war and the start of the Marshall Plan. Soviet head of state Joseph Stalin prevented his satellites from participating, and from that point on Eastern Europe, with inefficient centralised economies, fell further and further behind Western Europe in terms of economic development and prosperity. In 1949, the United States, rejecting the long-standing policy of no military alliances in peacetime, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance, which continues into the 21st century. In response the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact of communist states.^[87]

In 1950 the Soviets tested their first nuclear weapon, thereby escalating the risk of warfare. Indeed, the threat of mutually assured destruction prevented both powers from going too far, and resulted in proxy wars, especially in Korea and Vietnam, in which the two sides did not directly confront each other.^[86] Within the United States, the Cold War prompted concerns about Communist influence. The unexpected leapfrogging of American technology by the Soviets in 1957 with Sputnik, the first Earth satellite, began the Space Race, won by the Americans as Apollo 11 landed astronauts on the moon in 1969. The angst about the weaknesses of American education led to large-scale federal support for science education and research.^[88]

In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Beginning in the 1950s, middle-class culture had a growing obsession with consumer goods. White Americans made up nearly 90% of the population in 1950.^{[89][clarification needed]}

In 1960, the charismatic politician John F. Kennedy was elected as the first and—thus far—only Roman Catholic President of the United States. The Kennedy family brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the White House. His time in office was marked by such notable events as the acceleration of the United States' role in the Space Race; escalation of the American role in the Vietnam War; the Cuban missile crisis; the Bay of Pigs Invasion; the jailing of Martin Luther King, Jr. during the Birmingham campaign; and the appointment of his brother Robert F. Kennedy to his Cabinet as Attorney General. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963, leaving the nation in profound shock.^[90]

[edit] Climax of liberalism

The climax of liberalism came in the mid-1960s with the success of President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–69) in securing congressional passage of his Great Society programs, including civil rights, the end of segregation, Medicare, extension of welfare, federal aid to education at all levels, subsidies for the arts and humanities, environmental activism, and a series of programs designed to wipe out poverty.^[91][92] As recent historians have explained:

"Gradually, liberal intellectuals crafted a new vision for achieving economic and social justice. The liberalism of the early 1960s contained no hint of radicalism, little disposition to revive new deal era crusades against concentrated economic power, and no intention to fast and class passions or redistribute wealth or restructure existing institutions. Internationally it was strongly anti-Communist. It aimed to defend the free world, to encourage economic growth at home, and to ensure that the resulting plenty was fairly distributed. Their agenda-much influenced by Keynesian economic theory-envisioned massive public expenditure that would speed economic growth, thus providing the public resources to fund larger welfare, housing, health, and educational programs."^[93]

Johnson was rewarded with an electoral landslide in 1964 against conservative Barry Goldwater, which broke the decades-long control of Congress by the Conservative coalition. But the Republicans bounced back in 1966 and elected Richard Nixon in 1968. Nixon largely continued the New Deal and Great Society programs he inherited; conservative reaction would come with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980.

[edit] The Civil Rights Movement

Further information: African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968)

Martin Luther King gives his I Have a Dream speech at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion. At the same time, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights movement. The activism of African American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them, but would achieve great steps towards equality with Supreme Court decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between Whites and Blacks.

Martin Luther King, Jr., who had won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death others led the movement, most notably King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women's Liberation Movement. Over the first nine months of 1967, 128 American cities suffered 164 riots.^[94] The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the strengthening of Black Power, however the decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration.

[edit] The Women's Movement

Further information: Second-wave feminism

Gloria Steinem at a meeting of the Women's Action Alliance, 1972.

A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine Mystique, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women, or NOW, to act for women as the NAACP did for African Americans.^[61][95]

Protests began, and the new Women's Liberation Movement grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the U.S.'s main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions; Friedan's Women's Strike for Equality (1970) was a nation-wide success. The Movement was split into factions by political ideology early on, however (with NOW on the left, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far left).

Along with Friedan, Gloria Steinem was an important feminist leader, co-founding the NWPC, the Women's Action Alliance, and editing the Movement's magazine, Ms. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 and favored by about seventy percent of the American public, failed to be ratified in 1982, with only three more states needed to make it law. The nation's conservative women, led by activist Phyllis Schlafly, defeated the ERA by arguing that it degraded the position of the housewife, and made young women susceptible to the military draft.^[96][97]

However, many federal laws (i.e. those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunites, credit, ending pregnancy discrimination, and requiring NASA, the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e. those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state ERAs established women's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, deemed by the Supreme Court as a fundamental right in Roe v. Wade (1973), is still a point of debate today.^[98]

[edit] The Counterculture Revolution and Cold War Détente (1964–1980)

Main article: History of the United States (1964–1980)

Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities and young people. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society social programs and the judicial activism^{[citation needed]} of the Warren Court added to the wide range of social reform during the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. The Counterculture Revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, dividing the already hostile environment but also bringing forth more liberated social views.

United States Navy F-4 Phantom II shadows a Soviet Tu-95 Bear D aircraft in the early 1970s

Johnson was succeeded by Republican Richard Nixon in 1969, who turned the war over to the South Vietnamese forces and ended American combat roles; he negotiated a peace treaty in 1973, secured the release of POWs and ended the draft. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops. Nixon manipulated the fierce distrust between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, achieving détente (cooperation) with both parties.^[99] The Watergate scandal, involving Nixon's coverup of his operatives break-in into the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex destroyed his political base, sent many aides to prison, and forced Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974. He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who was subsequently helpless to prevent the conquest of South Vietnam when North Vietnam invaded in 1975.^[100]

The OPEC oil embargo marked a long-term economic transition, as for the first time energy prices skyrocketed and American factories faced serious competition from foreign automobiles, clothing, electronics and consumer goods. By the late 1970s the economy suffered an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and very high inflation coupled with high interest rates (the term stagflation was coined). While economists agreed on the wisdom of deregulation, many of the New Deal era regulations were ended, as in transportation, banking and telecommunications.^[101]

Jimmy Carter, running as someone who was not a part of the Washington political establishment, was elected president in 1976.^[102] On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 66 Americans hostage, resulting in the Iran hostage crisis. With the hostage crisis and continuing stagflation, Carter lost the 1980 election to the Republican Ronald Reagan.^[103] On January 20, 1981, minutes after Carter's term in office ended, the remaining U.S. captives held at the U.S. embassy in Iran were released, ending the 444-day hostage crisis.^[104]

[edit] The end of the Cold War (1980–1991)

Main article: History of the United States (1980–1991)

Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate challenges Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall in 1987, shortly before the end of the Cold War

Ronald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslide elections. Reagan's economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics") and the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered income taxes from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years.^{[citation needed]} Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation.^[105] The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982; unemployment and business failures soon entered rates close to Depression-era levels. These negative trends reversed the following year, when the inflation rate decreased from 11% to 2%, the unemployment rate decreased from 10.8% in December 1982 to 7.5% in November 1984,^[106] and the economic growth rate increased from 4.5% to 7.2%.^[107]

Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the U.S. military, incurring a costly budget deficit. Reagan introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (dubbed "Star Wars" by opponents) in which the U.S. could, in theory, shoot down missiles with laser systems in space. Though it was never fully developed or deployed,^[108] the Soviets were genuinely concerned about the possible effects of the program^[109] and the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for the anti-ballistic missile systems of today.^[110]

The Reagan administration also provided covert funding and assistance to anti-Communist resistance movements worldwide. Reagan's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the U.S., though his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy.^[111] The arms-for-hostages scandal led to the convictions of such figures as Oliver North and John Poindexter.^[112]

Reagan met four times with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who ascended to power in 1985, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save Communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America,^[113] then by shedding the East European empire in 1989. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, ending the U.S.–Soviet Cold War.

[edit] World superpower (1991–present)

Main article: History of the United States (1991–present)

The NASDAQ Composite index swelled with the dot-com bubble in the optimistic "New Economy". The bubble burst in 2000.

The United States emerged as the world's sole remaining superpower and continued to intervene in international affairs, including the 1991 Gulf War against Iraq. During the 1990s, President Bill Clinton oversaw one of the longest periods of economic expansion and unprecedented gains in securities values, a side effect of the digital revolution and new business opportunities created by the Internet. In 1998, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of "high crimes and misdemeanors" for lying about a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. However, the Senate voted to acquit Clinton of the charges. The failure of impeachment and the Democratic gains in the 1998 election forced House Speaker Newt Gingrich, a Republican, to resign from Congress.^[114]

The presidential election in 2000 between George W. Bush and Al Gore was one of the closest in U.S. history, and helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. The vote in the decisive state of Florida was extremely close and produced a dramatic dispute over the counting of votes. The U.S. Supreme Court in Bush v. Gore ended the recount with a 5–4 vote. That meant Bush, then in the lead, carried Florida and the election.^[115]

[edit] 9/11 and the War on Terror

The September 11 attacks led to the War on Terror.

Once again the United States was attacked by terrorism with the September 11, 2001 attacks (9/11) in which al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked four transcontinental airliners and intentionally crashed two of them into the twin towers of the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon killing 3,000 people.^[116] President George W. Bush announced a "War on Terror" in response. The United States and NATO launched an invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime that had harbored al-Qaeda and its founder, Osama bin Laden. The federal government established new domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. The controversial USA PATRIOT Act increased government's power to monitor communications and removed legal restrictions on information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services. A cabinet-level agency called the Department of Homeland Security was created to lead and coordinate federal counter-terrorism activities.^[117] Some of these anti-terrorism efforts, particularly the U.S. government's handling of detainees at the prison at Guantanamo Bay, led to allegations toward the U.S. government of human rights violations.^[118]

In 2003, the United States launched an invasion of Iraq, which led to the collapse of the Iraqi government and the eventual capture of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, whom the U.S. had long-standing tense relations with. The reasons for the invasion cited by the Bush administration included the spreading of democracy, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction^[119] (a key demand of the UN as well, though later investigations found parts of the intelligence reports to be inaccurate)^[120] and the liberation of the Iraqi people. The invasion and continued Iraq War fueled international protests and gradually saw domestic support waver,^[121] despite initial successes early in the invasion. In 2007, after years of violence by the Iraqi insurgency, President Bush deployed more troops in a strategy dubbed "the surge". While the death toll decreased, the political stability of Iraq remained in doubt.^[122]

In 2008, the unpopularity of President Bush and the Iraq war, along with the 2008 financial crisis, led to the election of Barack Obama, the first African American President of the United States. After he took offce, Obama began to decrease troop levels in Iraq, and officially ended combat operations in the country on August 31, 2010. At the same time, he kept 50,000 in Iraq to assist Iraqi forces, help protect withdrawing forces, and work on counter-terrorism until December 31, 2011, the date Bush scheduled for the full withdrawal.^[123][124] Obama increased American involvement in Afghanistan, starting a surge strategy using an additional 30,000 troops, while proposing to begin withdrawing troops in July 2011.^[125] In May 2011, after nearly a decade in hiding, Osama bin Laden was killed by U.S. armed forces acting under President Obama's direct orders, in a covert operation in Abbottabad, Pakistan, about 50 km (31 mi) north of Islamabad.^[126]

[edit] Recent events

Lehman Brothers (headquarters pictured) filed for bankruptcy in September 2008 at the height of the U.S. financial crisis.

In December 2007, the United States, and most of Europe, entered the longest post–World War II recession,^[127] which included a housing market crisis, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices,^[128] an automotive industry crisis, rising unemployment, and the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression.^{[129][130][131]} The financial crisis hit a critical point in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers and other important financial institutions failed.^[132] Starting the following month the federal government lent $245 billion to financial institutions through the Troubled Asset Relief Program.^[133] Shortly after taking office, Obama signed into law a $787 billion economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening recession. In addition to the economic stimulus, the government took steps to rescue the auto industry and prevent future economic meltdowns. These included a bailout of General Motors and Chrysler, putting ownership temporarily in the hands of the government, and the "cash for clunkers" program which temporarily boosted new car sales.^[134] Congress enacted the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, making sweeping changes to financial regulation.^[135] The recession officially ended in June 2009 as the U.S. economy began to expand once again,^[136] however the unemployment rate has continued to linger near 9% and above into 2011.^[137]

In the 111th Congress the GOP was unified in almost total opposition to the programs of the Congressional Democrats. Heated national debates emerged over numerous issues such as health care reform, which was rekindled by the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.^[138] In the 2010 midterm elections, the Republicans regained control of the House of Representatives and cut into the Democratic majority in the Senate.^[139] Another factor in these results was the Tea Party, a populist conservative movement that since 2009 has promoted political candidates and protests^[140] with the goal of adherence to an originalist interpretation of the Constitution and reductions in government spending, taxes, and the federal budget deficit. As of 2011, debates continue over the economy, the 8.8% unemployment rate, deficit spending, health care reform, the financial crisis in state government, the role of corporate spending in election campaigns,^[141] and U.S. involvement in Afghanistan and Libya.